A map of European empires c. 1700. By the 18th century, European power had become truly global through a combination of maritime expansion, state-backed commerce, and military force. The leading Atlantic empires, Spain, Portugal, the Dutch Republic, England, and France, had transformed overseas trade into an instrument of state power. Spain and Portugal, pioneers of early expansion in the 15th–16th centuries, still controlled vast overseas territories, particularly in the Americas and the Indian Ocean. Meanwhile, the Dutch Republic (Republic of the Seven United Provinces) built a commercial empire through chartered companies such as the VOC, dominating key nodes of global trade. England (Kingdom of Great Britain after 1707) and France, under Louis XIV (reign 1643–1715), emerged as aggressive competitors in both Atlantic and Asian markets. This system, known as mercantilism, prioritized bullion accumulation, controlled trade routes, and colonial monopolies as foundations of national power.
