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by Rachel Hiser Remmes

Ivory is a precious raw material that was used for the creation of diverse objects in antiquity and throughout the entire Medieval period. Part of the reason for its value is on account of its rarity. Ivory comes from elephant tusks, which were not easily accessible to much of the known world at the time. Ivory was often carved into objects that not only had aesthetic value but functional use; examples include combs, thrones, caskets, incense or makeup containers, and book covers. During the medieval period, ivory took on increasing symbolic importance because of its white color, which reflected the purity of the Virgin Mary.

As a medium, ivory provokes interesting questions with regard to the larger art historical discourse on form versus function. As noted, the medium was not simply admired but molded and carved to suit a particular economic or spiritual need. Artisans gave time and detailed attention to each of these objects not so that they would hang on a wall but be used by the ancient and medieval persons of their time. In our exploration of Medieval Materiality, this is a driving question; what does a given object signify on account of its medium. Medieval materials were important because they imparted something extra, something that exceeded the stories told by the figural or decorative images carved into them.

Further Reading:

Williamson, Beth. “Matter and Materiality in an Italian Reliquary Triptych.” Gesta (Spring, 2018): 23-42.

Koechlin, Raymond. Les ivoires gothiques français (Paris: Picard, 1924).

Barnet, Peter, ed. Images in Ivory: Precious Objects of the Gothic Age (Detroit: Detroit Institute of Arts, 1997).

Bartolo di Fredi. Reliquary Triptych with the Annunciation, ca. 1370, tempera and gold leaf on wood with gold and polychrome ivory.

The Brescia Casket, second half of the 4th century, ivory, Milan, Italy.

Ivory Book Cover with Scenes from the Life of Christ, second half of the 5th century, ivory.

Christ Raising the Widow’s Son From the Dead, c. 962-8, ivory, Milan, Italy.

Comb with Lions and Geometric Designs, 6th-5th century B.C., ivory, Naples, Italy.

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The Chiaroscuro Woodcut in Renaissance Italy opened on June 3, 2018 and is on view at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art until September 16, 2018. 

http://www.lacma.org/art/exhibition/chiaroscuro-woodcut-renaissance-italy

Ugo da Carpi after Francesco Parmigianino, Diogenes, c. 1527, Los Angeles County Museum of Art.

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IASblog has achieved a new landmark of 10,000 followers! Thanks to all our readers for supporting IASblog. Keep the likes and questions coming.

Have an idea for a topic want to write a guest post? Reach out to the IASblog Editor for details. 

Not a member of the Italian Art Society? We encourage you to join or contribute today. The start of the new year is a great time to become a member or renew a membership.

Membership options begin at $20 for students and $30 for regular members. Patron and Benefactor levels allow you to make a great impact on Italophiles everywhere. More details can be found on the Italian Art Society website. 

Grazie ai tutti voi!

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New Writer Favorite Artwork Fact File

To welcome our new IASblog writers, we thought it would be wonderful if they introduce themselves by sharing their favorite work as one of our “Favorite Artwork Fact Files (FAFF). Our fourth and final FAFF comes from Rachel Hiser Remmes. 

What is your favorite artwork? The eleventh-century fresco program in the Basilica of Sant’Angelo in Formis in Capua, Italy, undertaken circa 1072-85/7. 

...and your favorite detail? My favorite detail is the donor portrait of Abbot Desiderius in the lower register of the apse on the left-hand side. He holds a model of the church of Sant’Angelo and is curiously dressed in non-abbatial garb.

Why? My Master’s thesis focused on the reception of the fresco program during the church’s dedication ritual. Curiously enough, my visit to the space affirmed my contention that the receptive import of the frescoes cannot be experienced properly except when viewed from within the space. Even though I had spent time researching Sant’Angelo in Formis before my trip, when I stepped into the church it was as if I was seeing it for the first time. Details emerged that I had never noticed, and it was these details that prompted my thesis.

IASblog (Rachel) explains... Originally a pagan temple dedicated to Diana, the current structure at Sant’Angelo underwent several major renovations in the early Christian and medieval eras. It is tucked away on Mount Tifata in the town of Capua.

The fresco program in Sant’Angelo is one of the earliest fresco programs preserved in-situ, of which a majority is still intact. Most of the program that is visible today is from the eleventh-century campaign initiated by Abbot Desiderius of Montecassino in 1072, shortly after he finished the famous Basilica of St. Benedict’s at Montecassino. The program has gained some of its fame because of its temporal and patronal relationship to St. Benedict’s Basilica, which was devastated by an earthquake in the fourteenth century and then completely demolished in bombings during World War II. Many scholars believe Sant’Angelo to be a near identical replica of the grander Basilica of St. Benedict’s, but this is still open for debate. Regardless, Sant’Angelo preserves the architectural and spatial thought of Abbot Desiderius more fully than any other extant building. 

Furthermore, the patron portrait of Abbot Desiderius himself has also initiated interest. Unlike many of the earlier patron portraits found within apsidal spaces in Rome, usually within the conch of the apse, as at SS. Cosmos and Damien, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, Santa Prassede, Abbot Desiderius is placed in the lower register at the edge of the apse and closest to the nave. Furthermore, an intercessor saint does not present him to Christ in Majesty, a common medieval iconography. His lavish dress and life-like size only enhance his prestige and intrigue as a historical figure and artistic patron.

Additionally, the church is unique because it diverges from the more typical organization of nave imagery. Unlike the nave of Old St. Peter’s or the Basilica of St. Benedict’s, both of which display both Old and New Testament imagery in the nave, Sant’Angelo’s nave is covered with New Testament scenes, while those from the Old Testament decorate the two side aisles.  Unique themes emerge within the New Testament program, including the focus on the parables and an unprecedented image of St. John the Baptist.

References Cowdery, H.E.J. The Age of Abbot Desiderius: Montecassino, the Papacy, the

Normans in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983. 

Gunhouse, Glenn. “The Fresco Decoration of Sant’Angelo in Formis.” Dissertation, John Hopkins University, 1991.

Kessler, Herbert L. Old St. Peter’s and Church Decoration in Medieval Italy. Spoleto:Centro Italiano di studi sull’alto Medioevo, 2002.

Lipsmeyer, Elizabeth. “The Donor and His Church Model In Medieval Art form Early Christian to the Late Romanesque Period.” Dissertation, Rutgers University, 1981.

Minott, Charles. “The Iconography of the Life of Christ in the Church of Sant’Angelo.” Dissertation, Princeton University, 1967.

Thunø, Erik. The Apse Mosaic in Early Medieval Rome, Time, Network, and Repetition. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2015.

Main façade of the Basilica of Sant’Angelo in Formis, Capua. 

Various views of the interior fresco program, including a view of Abbot Desiderius and Christ Pantoktrator in the main apse, Basilica of Sant’Angelo in Formis, Capua. Images courtesy of the author. 

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New Writer Favorite Artwork Fact File

To welcome our new IASblog writers, we thought it would be wonderful if they introduce themselves by sharing their favorite work as one of our “Favorite Artwork Fact Files (FAFF). Our third FAFF comes from Amy Fredrickson, whose selected work was timed perfectly to coincide with the artist’s birthday (Artemisia was born 8 July 1593). 

What is your favorite artwork? Artemisia Gentileschi’s (1593- 1653) Judith and Her Maidservant (c. 1613 to 1614) in Galleria Palatina, Palazzo Pitti, Florence, Italy.

….and your favorite detail? My favorite detail is Judith’s startled yet cautious expression, which Artemisia made dramatic through the use of tenebrism. The clear light source provides a theatricality to the painting and builds drama. Artemisia adds depth to the figures of Judith and Abra, her maidservant. She focused on Judith’s reaction, which captured a moment of stillness as they prepare to escape from the enemy camp. The glowing light source illuminates Judith, depicting her with the heavy sword balanced on her shoulder as if she is prepared to use it again.  

Why? This technique established Judith as the focus of the painting, rather than the focus that falls on Holofernes in her other depictions. In this case, Artemisia illustrated the danger and suspense of the biblical story rather than the violent act.  Artemisia proved her immense skill by engaging the viewer and creating tension as the figures are disturbed by a sound from off of the canvas. Artemisia details not only the light but also the shadows, which bathe Holofernes' head in darkness.

More about the painting…. Artemisia Gentileschi was born in Rome on 8 July, 1593. As the daughter of artist Orazio Gentileschi, she learned to paint in his studio at a young age.  It was unusual for women to train as painters in a workshop dominated by men, so Artemisia began an apprenticeship with her father where she learned from copying his paintings. To teach her linear perspective, her father arranged for her to work with a colleague and friend, Agostino Tassi. In 1612, her father brought rape charges against Tassi, which culminated in a seven-month trial that became a public scandal. After the trial ended, Artemisia was married to a Florentine painter, Pietro Antonio di Vincenzo Stiattesi, and they moved to Florence in 1613. Prior to moving to Florence, her father wrote to the Grand Duke of Florence, Ferdinando II, and sent a painting to demonstrate his daughter’s skill. [1] 

Artemisia painted Judith and Her Maidservant between 1613 and 1614. The painting dates from the beginning of Gentileschi’s stay in Florence; however, some art historians believe the painting was sent before her arrival to attract Medici patronage. [2] A 1637 inventory listed the painting as in the Medici collection; however,  whether the painting was completed after her arrival in Florence or just before is unknown. Some scholars who argue for a Florentine provenance point out that Judith’s dress may reflect the ornate tastes of the Medici court at the time.[3]  

Notes:   [1]Mary D. Garrard, Artemisia Gentileschi. (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NY, 1989.) p. 34.

[2] Gregori, Paintings in the Uffizi & Pitti Galleries, p. 338.

[3] Garrard, Artemisia Gentileschi, p. 40.

References: Garrard, Mary D., Artemisia Gentileschi, (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NY, 1989.)

Gregori, Mina, Paintings in the Uffizi & Pitti Galleries. (Boston: Bulfinch, 1994.)

Cropper, Elizabeth, “New Documents for Artemisia Gentileschi's Life in Florence,” The Burlington Magazine. Vol 135, No 1088 (Nov., 1993), p. 760-761.

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New Writer Favorite Artwork Fact File

To welcome our new IASblog writers, we thought it would be wonderful if they introduce themselves by sharing their favorite work as one of our “Favorite Artwork Fact Files (FAFF). Our second FAFF comes from Maggie Bell. 

What is your favorite artwork? The Sacro Monte di Varallo, an Observant Franciscan site founded in the late fifteenth century to recreate the experience of being a pilgrim in the Holy Land.

…and your favorite detail? I love the view in the Bethlehem complex through a carefully placed opening in a grate, through which the viewer can see one of the Magi removing his crown.

Why? I visited Varallo while I was conducting research for my Master’s thesis.  I remember the trip from Santa Barbara to the entrance gate of the Sacro Monte being a long and difficult one.  When I arrived I imagined that I felt similarly to the many other pilgrims who had come to Varallo for various reasons over the centuries.  The site itself is a bit overwhelming, and was clearly meant to be understood with one’s whole body.  The paths take visitors through trees that obscure one’s view, and passing from the outside heat (I was there in August) to the dark quiet cool inside the ”temples” requires visual and physical adjustment. 

The Sacro Monte di Varallo was founded in 1491 by the Observant Franciscan friar Bernardino Caimi. Bernardino had returned to Varallo, a small city close to Lago Maggiore, after serving in the Franciscan-controlled territories in the Holy Land. Bernardino wanted to create a more accessible option for pilgrims in the form of a Sacro Monte, or “Holy Mountain,” designed to mimic the pilgrimage experience down to the very measurements of particularly important sacred sites. For instance, the recreated Nativity Grotto at Varallo looks very similar to the actual grotto in Bethlahem, and the replicated stone covering Christ’s sepulcher was allegedly based on measurements taken by Franciscans who had seen the original. Visitors can still follow the stations of Christ’s suffering along the Via Dolorosa leading up from the town of Varallo to the top of the Sacro Monte, which match the distances demarcated on the original road in Jerusalem.

In the early to mid-sixteenth century the pilgrim’s experience was given added vivacity through the addition of wooden and terracotta polychrome sculptures representing figures from the life and Passion of Christ, almost all of which were created by Gaudenzio Ferrari (1471-1546) and his workshop.  The earliest known sculptural grouping is the Pietra dell’unzione slightly smaller than life-size and made entirely of painted wood. Later figures, like those in situ today, have a heightened level of realism and wear fabric clothes and wigs made of human hair.  (In fact, you may donate your hair to the Sacro Monte, as long as it isn’t dyed.)

By the mid-sixteenth century the Sacro Monte had fallen into disrepair, though interest in the site was revitalized thanks largely to Carlo Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan and a powerful voice during the Counter-Reformation. Borromeo was a devotee of the Sacro Monte, often spending the night praying in the Sepulcher next to a wooden figure of the dead Christ. Between 1565 and 1569, just after the Council of Trent had sanctioned the use of images for devotional purposes, the architect Galeazzo Alessi (1512-1572) designed elaborate new “temple” structures for the sacred sites, as well as glass enclosures, or vetriate, for the sculptural groups.  This fundamentally altered the interactions between pilgrims and images, as they could no longer move among or touch the figures but rather needed to view them through glass from a distance. Visitors today are still separated from these figures, and their engagement is further controlled by openings in the barriers, which frame specific views of the scenes within.

The Sacro Monte di Varallo has been an UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2003, along with eight other Sacri Monti in the region. Each of these sites tells a specific story.  For instance, the Sacro Monte di Orta leads the visitor through the life of St. Francis, and the Sacro Monte di Varese represents the life of the Virgin.  The Sacro Monte di Varallo remains an important part of the surrounding community, and early-modern pilgrims have been replaced by locals and visitors strolling the grounds, and buses of school children on field trips.

References: Jonathan Bober, “Varallo, Sacro Monte” Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press.

“Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy.” 

Mario Labò “Galeazzo Alessi”, Treccani Dizionario Biografico.

View of Sacro Monte di Varallo site.

View through enclosures, Sacro Monte di Varallo.

Pietra dell’unzione, artist unknown, 1493-1507, Sacro Monte di Varallo. 

Flagellation of Christ, Sacro Monte di Varallo. 

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IASBlog Welcomes New Staff Writers

IASblog welcomes Maria Alambritis, Maggie Bell, Amy Fredrickson, and Rachel Hiser Remmes as Staff Writers and contributors to the blog, providing news and notes about Italian art and architecture from prehistory to the present.

As we welcome these new voices to join our veteran team members of Constanza Beltrami, Jean Marie Carey, and Livia Lupi, we’d like to extend a very warm thanks to both Ioannis Tzortzakakis as well as Martina Bollini, who has written extensively for the blog for these past two years. Both Ioannis and Martina will be missed!

More on each of our writers is available here.  IASblog has over 2,800 posts and over 9,600 followers. Thank you for reading!

IASblog welcomes individual contributions either by using the Submit link or sending an email to the editor. Submissions should include images with captions that give artist name, title, date, medium, location and photo credit. Authors should include weblinks as relevant, including to personal/professional websites for author credit. Full author guidelines can be found here. Guest authors include Douglas Dow, Adrian Duran, Cathleen Fleck, Harold Johnson, Suzanne Karr Schmidt, Sheryl E. Reiss, and Sean Roberts.

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Call for Contributors: IASblog Staff Writers

The Italian Art Society’s IASblog seek applications for staff writers to contribute regular features for the next annual term starting 1 July 2017. 

IASblog publishes short articles on all aspects of Italian art and architecture from prehistory to the present. These articles can include, but are not limited to, historical notes tied to anniversary dates of births, deaths, or other significant events related to Italian artists, architects, designers, and patrons, as well as historians and critics of Italian art. Notes on current exhibitions, new publications, and news items relevant to the study and conservation of Italian art and architecture are also welcome.

Staff writers will create new content and/or revise existing content, averaging five to seven short posts per month (250-1,000 words) and are encouraged to pitch ideas for blog posts outside of their assigned articles. All new content will include author byline with hyperlink to a personal or professional website, and each staff writer will have a short bio posted on the blog’s “About” page. The position of staff writer does not carry additional compensation. Visit IASblog to see sample posts. 

To apply, please submit a letter of interest, cv, and a short writing sample to the IASblog Editor Alexis Culotta by 31 May 2017. Successful candidates must be members or will be asked to join the Italian Art Society and will begin contributing to IASblog upon appointment for a one-year, renewable term.