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Curiosity Rover Provides First Confirmation of a Mineral Mapp industrial cellular modem3g modem  ed from Orbit

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This image shows the first holes drilled by NASA’s Mars rover Curiosity at Mount Sharp. The loose material near the drill holes is drill tailings and an accumulation of dust that slid down the rock during drilling. Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS

A sample of powdered rock extracted by the Curiosity rover’s drill from the “Confidence Hills” target has provided NASA scientists with the first confirmation of a mineral mapped from orbit.

“This connects us with the mineral identifications from orbit, which can now help guide our investigations as we climb the slope and test hypotheses derived from the orbital mapping,” said Curiosity Project Scientist John Grotzinger, of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena.

Curiosity collected the powder by drilling into a rock out iiot  crop at the base of Mount Sharp in late September. The robotic arm delivered a pinch of the sample to the Chemistry and Mineralogy (CheMin) instrument inside the rover. This sample, from a target called “Confidence Hills” within the “Pahrump Hills” outcrop, contained much more hematite than any rock or soil sample previously analyzed by CheMin during the two-year-old mission. Hematite is an iron-oxide mineral that gives clues about ancient environmental conditions from when it formed.

In observations reported in 2010, before selection of Curiosity’s landing site, a mineral-mapping instrument on NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter provided evidence of hematite in the geological unit that includes the Pahrump Hills outcrop. The landing site is inside Gale Crater, an impact basin about 96 miles (154 kilometers) in diameter with the layered Mount Sharp rising about three miles (five kilometers) high in the center.

“We’ve reached the part of the crater where we have the mineralogical information that was important in selection of Gale Crater as the landing site,” said Ralph Milliken of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island. He is a member of Curiosity’s science team and was lead author of that 2010 report in Geophysical Research Letters identifying minerals based on observations of lower Mount Sharp by the orbiter’s Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM). “We’re Industrial IoT Router/Gateway   now on a path where the orbital data can help us predict what minerals we’ll find and make good choices about where to drill. Analyses like these will help us place rover-scale observations into the broader geologic history of Gale that we see from orbital data.”

Much of Curiosity’s first year on Mars was spent investigating outcrops in a low area of Gale Crater called “Yellowknife Bay,” near the spot where the rover landed. The rover found an ancient lakebed. Rocks there held evidence of wet environmental conditions billions of years ago that offered ingredients and an energy source favorable for microbial life, if Mars ever had microbes. Clay minerals of interest in those rocks at Yellowknife Bay had not been detected from orbit, possibly due to dust coatings that interfere with CRISM’s view of them.

The rover spent much of the mission’s second year driving from Yellowknife Bay to the base of Mount Sharp. The hematite found in the first sample from the mountain tells about environmental conditions different from the conditions recorded in the rocks of Yellowknife Bay. The rock material interacted with water and atmosphere to become more oxidized.

The rocks analyzed earlier also contain iron-oxide minerals, mostly magnetite. One way to form hematite is to put magnetite in oxidizing conditions. The latest sample has about eight percent hematite and four percent magnetite. The drilled rocks at Yellowknife Bay and on the way to Mount Sharp contain at most about one percent hematite and much higher amounts of magnetite.

“There’s more oxidation involved in the new sample,” said CheMin Deputy Principal Investigator David Vaniman of the Planetary Science Institute in Tucson, Arizona.

The sample is only partially oxidized, and preservation of magnetite and olivine indicates a gradient of oxidation levels. That gradient could have provided a chemical energy source for microbes.

The Pahrump HIlls outcrop includes multiple layers uphill from its lowest layer, where the Confidence Hills sample was drilled. The layers vary in texture and may also vary in concentrations of hematite and other minerals. The rover team is now using Curiosity to survey the outcrop and assess possible targets for close inspection and drilling.

The mission may spend weeks to months at Pahrump Hills before proceeding farther up the st applications  ack of geological layers forming Mount Sharp. Those higher layers include an erosion-resistant band of rock higher on Mount Sharp with such a strong orbital signature of hematite, it is called “Hematite Ridge.” The target drilled at Pahrump Hills is much softer and more deeply eroded than Hematite Ridge.

Another NASA Mars rover, Opportunity, made a key discovery of hematite-rich spherules on a different part of Mars in 2004. That finding was important as evidence of a water-soaked history that produced those mineral concretions. The form of hematite at Pahrump Hills is different and is most important as a clue about oxidation conditions. Plenty of other evidence in Gale Crater has testified to the ancient presence of water.

NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of Caltech in Pasadena, manages the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and Mars Science Laboratory projects for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington, and built the Curiosity rover. NASA’s Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, developed CheMin and manages instrument operations. The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, Maryland, developed and operates CRISM.

Image: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS

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Cassini Reveals Possible New Moon Formin touch screen for vending machine  g Around Saturn

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This disturbance visible at the outer edge of m2m communication   Saturn’s A ring in this image from NASA’s Cassini spacecraft could be caused by an object replaying the birth process of icy moons. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute

Using data from the Cassini spacecraft, astronomers believe they have discovered the possible formation of a new tiny moon within the rings of Saturn.

NASA’s Cassini spacecraft has documented the formation of a small icy object within the rings of Saturn. Informally named “Peggy,” the object may be a new moon. Details of the observations were published online today by the journal Icarus.

“We have not seen anything like this before,” said Carl Murray of Queen Mary University of London, and the report’s lead author. “We may be looking at the act of birth, where this object is just leaving the rings and heading off to be a moon in its own right.”

Images taken with Cassini’s narrow angle camera on April 15, 2013 show disturbances at the very edge of Saturn’s A ring — the outermost of the planet’s large, bright rings. One of these disturbances is an arc about 20 percent brighter than its surroundings, 750 miles (1,200 kilometers) long and 6 miles (10 kilometers) wide. Scientists also found unusual protuberances in the usually smooth profile at the ring’s edge. Scientists believe the arc and protuberances are caused by the gravitational effects of a nearby object.

The object is not expected to grow any larger, and may even be falling apart. But the process of its formation and outward movement aids in our understanding of how Saturn’s icy moons, including the cloud-wrapped Titan and ocean-holding Enceladus, may have formed in more massive rings long ago. It also provides insight into how Earth and other planets in our solar system may have formed and migrated away from our star, the sun.

“Witnessing the possible birth of a tiny moon is an exciting, unexpected event,” said Cassini Vending PC   Project Scientist Linda Spilker, of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California. According to Spilker, Cassini’s orbit will move closer to the outer edge of the A ring in late 2016 and provide an opportunity to study Peggy in more detail and perhaps even image it.

Peggy is too small to see in images so far. Scientists estimate it is probably no more than about a half mile in diameter. Saturn’s icy moons range in size depending on their proximity to the planet — the farther from the planet, the larger. And many of Saturn’s moons are comprised primarily of ice, as are the particles that form Saturn’s rings. Based on these facts, and other indicators, researchers recently proposed that the icy moons formed from ring particles and then moved outward, away from the planet, merging with other moons on the way.

“The theory holds that Saturn long ago had a much more massive ring system capable of giving birth to larger moons,” Murray said. “As the moons formed near the edge, they depleted the rings.”

It is possible the process of moon formation in Saturn’s rings has ended with Peggy, as Saturn’s rings now are, in all likelihood, too depleted to make more moons. Because they may not observe this process again, Murray and his colleagues are wringing from the observations all they can learn.

Publication: Nicholas O. Attree, et al., “A survey of low-velocity collisional features in Saturn’s F ring,” Icarus, Volume 227, 1 January 2014, Pages 56–66; doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2013.09.008

PDF Copy of the Study: A Survey of Low-Velocity Collisional Features in Saturn’s F Ring

industrial PLC connection

Image: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute

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Yale Engineers Develop A New Chip That Could Advance Quantum Te cellular router wifi  chnology

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Photo of chip from Hong Tang’s lab, compared in size to a quarter (colors in chip are photographic artifacts). Picture courtesy of Xiang Guo.

Yale engineers have developed a new device that converts visible light to infrared light suitable for fiber-optic transmission without destroying the light’s quantum state.

The lab of Hong Tang, Llewellyn West Jones, Jr. Professor of Electrical Engineering & Physics, has developed a device that converts visible light to infrared light, a crucial step in building practical quantum information technology. The results of their work were published recently in Physical Review Letters.

Built on a chip, the wavelength converter would allow for the manipulation of quantum bits and the transmission of that same information over long distances. The device has the potential to be built on a scale required for quantum computers as the technology advances.

“People want to use short wavelength photons – like 700 to 800 nanometers – to do quantum computation,” said Xiang Guo said, a graduate student in Tang’s lab and lead author of the article. But if they want to transmit that information over a long distance through optics fibers with low loss, they need to convert the photons to longer wavelengths of abo Industrial 3G Router  ut 1,500 nanom cloud VMS eters. And when it reaches its destination, the photon needs to be converted back to the shorter wavelength.

When lasers send two wavelengths of light into the device, the converter generates a third frequency that acts as a kind  digital signage  of middle ground between the two. The device is made from aluminum nitride, which is key to the device’s success.

“We managed to make it very low loss, while retaining the nonlinearity,” Guo said. Their lab had started using the material five or six years ago, but found that it was very lossy – that is, quantum information was lost in the transmission. The team improved the material quality, which made it more transparent to light and reduced the loss of photons scattering at the boundary of the device.

Guo said the device has achieved a 14% conversion rate. He said the research team’s next step is to work more on the device and improve its conversion rates. “We want to increase it all the way to 70%, or even 90% or 100%,” he said.

Publication: Xiang Guo, et al., “On-Chip Strong Coupling and Efficient Frequency Conversion between Telecom and Visible Optical Modes,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 117, 123902, 2016; doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.117.123902

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APEX Electron Gun in Cellular modem   Second Phase of Testing

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With its cables and wires and wave-guides and cables, APEX is a snug fit in the Beam Test Facility at the Advanced Light Source. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory photo by Roy Kaltschmidt

Over the last six years, researchers at the Berkeley Lab have made great progress on APEX, an electron gun that operates at radio frequency in continuous wave mode to produce a high-quality beam at an unprecedented repetition rate.

The focus of Berkeley Lab’s Advanced Photon Injector Experiment, APEX, is an extraordinary electron gun specially designed for the front end of superconducting accelerators. When it’s complete, the APEX gun will be able to produce well-formed bunches of electrons in pulses a few trillionths or even mere quadrillionths of a second long, at rates of up to a million bunches per second.

“With the kind of accelerator-based x-ray light sources we’re designing for, the quality of the electron beam is determined right when the electrons leave the gun,” says Fernando Sannibale of the Accelerator and Fusion Research Division (AFRD), who heads the APEX project. “We need tight electron bunches with high charge, high energy, and a very high repetition rate. And we need the gun to operate reliably over long periods.”

A video artist’s ultra-slow-motion impression of an APEX-style electron gun firing a continuous train of electron bunches into a superconducting linear accelerator (in reality this would happen a million times a second). As they approach the speed of light the bunches contract, maintaining beam quality. After acceleration, the electron bunches are diverted in one or more undulators, the key components of free electron lasers. Oscillating back and forth in the changing magnetic field, they create beams of structured x-ray pulses. Before entering the experimental areas the electron bunches are diverted to a beam dump. (Animation created by Illumina Visual for Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory)

The APEX gun was conceived in 2006 by Sannibale and John Staples of AFRD and represents critical technology for the next generation of light sources. Initially funded under Berkeley Lab’s Laboratory Directed Research and Development program, since 2009 APEX has been supported by DOE’s Office of Science as part of a national program of research and development for accelerators and detectors.

A new kind of light source

In scientific parlance, a light source isn’t just a light bulb but a big machine that produces bright beams of light extending into the x-ray region. Typically light sources are user facilities, open to many scientists working on a wide range of experiments. Synchrotron light sources like Berkeley Lab’s Advanced Light Source (ALS), based on storage rings in which electrons circulate at high energies, are mainstays of scientific investigations in chemistry, complex materials, the life sciences, and other research frontiers.

The newest light sources are free electron lasers (FELs). Instead of synchrotrons, most FELs use linear accelerators to boost a train of electron bunches to relatively high energies, then send them through undulators, long rows of magnets that wiggle the electrons back and forth to make them shed much brighter x-ray beams than a synchrotron light source can achieve – and not just brighter, but coherent (laser-like) as well.

Unlike synchrotron sources, however, many FELs have tediously slow repetition rates. SLAC’s pioneering Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS), for example, produces electron bunches, and thus x-ray pulses, about 100 times a second. Low rates don’t just glacially slow the time needed to do many experiments. Future experiments hope to explore the extreme time scales at which electrons move within molecules; these experiments will need very short x-ray pulses repeating hundreds of thousands or even a million times a second.

High-repetition-rate x-ray beams call for superconducting electron accelerators operating in what’s known as continuous-wave mode (CW). Rather than single pulses or groups of pulses separated by large time intervals, in CW a continuous electromagnetic field accelerates a train of short-spaced electron bunches to the FEL undulators without interruption. The oscillating voltage of the accelerating field is synchronized with the bunches in the train at constant radio frequency (RF).

Daniele Filippetto, responsible for APEX’s photocathode laser and beam diagnostics, adjusts the mirror that directs the laser to fire into the gun, parallel to the emerging electron beam, to stimulate electron emission from the photocathode. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory photo by Roy Kaltschmidt

For such an accelerator, the electron gun itself must operate in continuous wave mode at radio frequency, which poses a challenge. Producing a train of extremely short, fast-repeating, high-charge bunches, with the electrons in each bunch remaining tightly packed, requires a source of electrons that can spit them out rapidly and repeatedly in the presence of strong electric fields.

“The problem is that a high-frequency, high-power RF cavity can’t operate in CW; it has to be pulsed or it would melt,” says Sannibale. “So to operate in CW, we have to start with lower frequencies.”

The APEX gun operates at 187 megahe Distribution Power Line Monitoring System  rtz (187 million cycles per second), or VHF – which means “very high frequency” but is low compared to the RF of the accelerator itself, measured in gigahertz (billions of cycles per second). The longer wavelength allows the gun’s cavity to be considerably larger than that of comparable higher-frequency guns, which means a greater surface area over which to distribute the heat, keeping the gun relatively cool while it accelerates a continuous wave of electron bunches.

The electron bunches come from a photocathode, a rod inside the gun that throws off electrons when hit by photons from a laser. The laser beam enters the gun’s beam-exit port in the opposite direction from the electron beam it stimulates, and is aligned closely parallel to it.

The first requirement for a photocathode that can produce a million bunches of electrons each second is high “quantum efficiency,” meaning it needs fewer photons to kick out each electron. The SLAC’s LCLS cathode, for example, is made of copper; it needs about 100,000 photons from a powerful laser to free a single electron. APEX is researching cathodes that will create high-charge bunches with just a hundred photons per electron.

“The materials we’re most interested in are called multi-alkali antimonides, which can produce high-charge electron bunches at high rates; these photocathodes are being developed at Berkeley Lab by Howard Padmore’s group at the ALS,” says Sannibale. “The only catch is, the compounds are highly reactive. The slightest trace of water, oxygen, or carbon monoxide poisons them – so we have to get that kind of stuff out of the neighborhood.”

To suck everything out of the gun’s copper cavity it is ringed by slots, outside of which are mounted 24 pumps called “NEGs,” plus one vacuum ion pump. NEG stands for “nonevaporable getter,” a material that can react with and capture virtually everything except noble gases and some hydrocarbons, for which the ion pump is needed. The pumps is designed to pull the vacuum in the cavity down to a hard 10-10 Torr, as devoid of molecules as some regions of outer space.

Other kinds of photocathodes will be tested as well, including cesium-telluride cathodes like those already in use at FLASH in Germany and other FELs; these are provided by Italy’s National Institute of Nuclear Physics (INFN) in Milan. Cesium-telluride cathodes are more robust and have quantum efficiency comparable to the multi-alkali antimonide cathodes, but require higher-energy photons to generate electron emission, and thus more powerful lasers.

Because the APEX gun is intended for advanced FEL user facilities, it has been fitted with a mechanism for unloading and reloading photocathodes relatively quickly (within an hour or two) without losing any of the gun’s vacuum.

From right, John Staples and Fernando Sannibale of the Accelerator and Fusion Research Division conceived APEX, and Russell Wells (left) of Engineering led its construction. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory photo by Roy Kaltschmidt

Advancing a technological frontier

The APEX project is proceeding in three overlapping phases, starting with building the gun from scratch. In phase 0, now almost complete, the gun was designed by Russell Wells of t Fault detection & location  he Engineering Division, fabricated in Berkeley Lab workshops, and installed in the Beam Test Facility at the Advanced Light Source. By December 15 of 2011 the RF fields were reliably performing at the nominal power, marking success for the project’s first fundamental milestone. Next the cathode load-lock mechanism will be installed; subsequently the gun’s vacuum performance will be verified.

Testing photocathode performance is already underway during the last stages of phase 0. As a first step, done in collaboration with a group at Brookhaven National Lab, the photocathode laser will be used to test a cathode amplifier made of diamond – not a source of electrons itself, but a way to multiply the number of electrons produced by a copper cathode three millimeters behind it; the performance of this promising diamond amplifier has never been measured in a RF gun, so the test will have scientific value in its own right. It’s also a good way to check the APEX system before tackling the challenges of multi-alkali antimonide cathodes.

Even as phase 0 is coming to an end, phase I has already begun. The emphasis is on rigorous proof of the photocathode candidates, the promising multi-alkali antimonides and the more robust cesium telluride. The other focus of phase I is testing beam quality at low energy, part of beam dynamics studies under postdoc Chris Papadopoulos.

After accelerating very quickly over a very short distance inside the gun, well-formed electron bunches (having low emittance, in accelerator-speak) leave the gun and enter the injector, the first stage of the accelerator itself. Since APEX is being tested in tight quarters – only three by 15 meters, with limited shielding – the bunches can be accelerated to at most 30 MeV (30 million electron volts), instead of the 70-100 MeV that will be required of a working injector operating in a FEL. During phase I the test won’t achieve even this energy: initially the beam will be kept at the energy of the bunches as they leave the gun, three quarters of an MeV.

However, says Sannibale, “We can only claim victory if we can demonstrate beam quality at higher energy.” That’s the main goal of phase II, which will test beam quality – emittance, bunch length, bunch charge, energy spread, and brightness – at 30 MeV. “Although we won’t be testing at the full energy required by a real injector, it will be high enough to show beam quality. Space charge forces will be sufficiently small to allow for a reliable characterization of the beam.”

Since its inception six years ago APEX has made significant progress. An electron gun that operates at radio frequency in continuous wave mode to produce a high-quality beam at an unprecedented repetition rate – it’s a concept that’s well on the road to final proof.

“APEX-style injectors will provide the front ends for a new generation of light sources, including Berkeley Lab’s own proposal for a facility with up to 10 FELs, 20 x-ray beamlines, and repetition rates up to a hundred thousand times a second for each. Each FEL will be independently tunable for wavelength, pul Vending Telemeter  se length, polarization, and other experimental requirements,” Sannibale says. “APEX is the front end of an accelerator, but it’s at the forefront of a whole new way of doing photon science.”

Images: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory photo by Roy Kaltschmidt

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vending inventory management   NASA Set to Launch 5 Rockets to Study High-Altitude Jet Stream

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The map of the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. shows the projected area whLine Monitoringere the LTE router  rockets may be visible while the motors are burning through flight. It also shows the flight profile of each of the five rockets. Credit: NASA/Wallops

NASA is set to launch five rockets to study the high speed winds and electrical turbulence of the high-altitude jet stream located 60 to 65 miles above the surface of the Earth, which can adversely affect satellite and radio communications.

Launch madness will hit the east coast in Marc da monitoring  h as NASA launches five rockets in approximately five minutes to study the high-altitude jet stream from its Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia.

The Anomalous Transport Rocket Experiment (ATREX) is a Heliophysics sounding rocket mission that will gather information needed to better understand the process responsible for the high-altitude jet stream located 60 to 65 miles above the surface of the Earth.

Four trimethyl aluminum (TMA) trails from a prior mission flown from Poker Flat, Alaska, in February 2009. Credit: Miguel Larsen/Clemson Univ.

The high-altitude jet stream is higher than the one commonly reported in weather forecasts. The winds found in this upper jet stream typically have speeds of 200 to well over 300 mph and create rapid transport from the Earth’s mid latitudes to the polar regions. This jet stream is located in the same region where strong electrical currents occur in the ionosphere. It is therefore a region with a lot of electrical turbulence, of the type that can adversely affect satellite and radio communications.

The sounding rockets being used for the mission are two Terrier-Improved Malemutes , two Terrier-Improved Orions and one Terrier-Oriole.

The five rockets will release a chemical tracer that will form milky, white tracer clouds that allow scientists and the public to “see” the winds in space. In addition, two of the rockets will have instrumented payloads, to measure the pressure and temperature in the atmosphere at the height of the high-speed winds.

Images: NASA/Wallops; Miguel Larsen/Clemson Univ

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Research industrial transport  ers Control Light Emission by Pairing Exotic 2D Materials

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Here, graphene is represented by a maroon-colored top layer; boron nitride is represented by yellow-green lattices below the graphene; and the atom is represented by a grey circle. A low concent wastewater treatment  ration of DC voltage (in blue) allows the light to propagate inside the boron nitride, forming a tightly confined waveguide for optical signals.

By applying a DC voltage to layers of graphene and boron nitride, researchers have demonstrated the ability to control light emission from a nearby atom.

Researchers have found a way to couple the properties of different two-dimensional materials to provide an exceptional degree of control over light waves. They say this has the potential to lead to new kinds of light detection, thermal-management systems, and high-resolution imaging devices.

The new findings — using a layer of one-atom-thick graphene deposited on top of a similar 2-D layer of a material called hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) — are published in the journal Nano Letters. The work is co-authored by MIT associate professor of mechanical engineering Nicholas Fang and graduate student Anshuman Kumar, and their co-authors at IBM’s T.J. Watson Research Ce Android Industrial Computer  nter, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and the University of Minnesota.

Although the two materials are structurally similar — both composed of hexagonal arrays of atoms that form two-dimensional sheets — they each interact with light quite differently. But the researchers found that these interactions can be complementary, and can couple in ways that afford a great deal of control over the behavior of light.

The hybrid material blocks light when a particular voltage is applied to the graphene, while allowing a special kind of emission and propagation, called “hyperbolicity,” when a different voltage is applied — a phenomenon not seen before in optical systems, Fang says. One of the consequences of this unusual behavior is that an extremely thin sheet of material can interact strongly with light, allowing beams to be guided, funneled, and controlled by voltages applied to the sheet.

“This poses a new opportunity to send and receive light over a very confined space,” Fang says, and could lead to “unique optical material that has great potential for optical interconnects.” Many researchers see improved interconnection of optical and electronic components as a path to more efficient computation and imaging systems.

Light’s interaction with graphene produces particles called plasmons, while light interacting with hBN produces phonons. Fang and his colleagues found that when the materials are combined in a certain way, the plasmons and phonons can couple, producing a strong resonance.

The properties of the graphene allow precise control over light, while hBN provides very strong confinement and guidance of the light. Combining the two makes it possible to create new “metamaterials” that marry the advantages of both, the researchers say.

Phaedon Avouris, a researcher at IBM and co-author of the paper, says, “The combination of these two materials provides a unique system that allows the manipulation of optical processes.”

The combined materials create a tuned system that can be adjusted to allow light only of certain specific wavelengths or directions to propagate, they say. “We can start to selectively pick some frequencies [to let through], and reject some,” Kumar says.

These properties should make it possible, Fang says, to create tiny optical waveguides, about 20 nanometers in size — the same size range as the smallest features that can now be produced in microchips. This could lead to chips that combine optical and electronic components in a single device, with far lower losses than when such devices are made separately and then interconnected, they say.

Co-author Tony Low, a researcher at IBM and the University of Minnesota, says, “Our work paves the way for using 2-D material heterostruc M2M IoT router tures for engineering new optical properties on demand.”

Another potential application, Fang says, comes from the ability to switch a light beam on and off at the material’s surface; because the material naturally works at near-infrared wavelengths, this could enable new avenues for infrared spectroscopy, he says. “It could even enable single-molecule resolution,” Fang says, of biomolecules placed on the hybrid material’s surface.

Sheng Shen, an assistant professor of mechanical engineering at Carnegie Mellon University who was not involved in this research, says, “This work represents significant progress on understanding tunable interactions of light in graphene-hBN.” The work is “pretty critical” for providing the understanding needed to develop optoelectronic or photonic devices based on graphene and hBN, he says, and “could provide direct theoretical guidance on designing such types of devices. … I am personally very excited about this novel theoretical work.”

The research team also included Kin Hung Fung of Hong Kong Polytechnic University. The work was supported by the National Science Foundation and the Air Force Office of Scientific Research.

Publication: Anshuman Kumar, et al., “Tunable Light–Matter Interaction and the Role of Hyperbolicity in Graphene–hBN System,” Nano Letters, 2015, 15 (5), pp 3172–3180; DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b01191

Image: Anshuman Kumar Srivastava and Jose Luis Olivares/MIT

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National GH m2m vpn  G 2010 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data

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The 2010 GHG data was released today and for the first time data from large facilities is easily accessible to the public. The GHG report has data on over 6,700 facilities that can be sorted and viewed by facility, location, industrial sector, and the type of GHG emitted when using the EPA’s online publication tool.

WASHINGTON – For the first time, comprehensive greenhouse gas (GHG) data reported directly from large facilities and suppliers across the country are now easily accessible to the public through EPA’s GHG Reporting Program. The 2010 GHG data released today includes public information from facilities in nine industry groups that directly emit large quantities of GHGs, as well as suppliers of certain fossil fuels.

“Thanks to strong collaboration and feedback from industry, states and other organizations, today we have a transparent, powerful data resource available to the public,” said Gina McCarthy, assistant administrator for EPA’s Office of Air and Radiation. “The GHG Reporting Program data provides a critical tool for businesses and other innovators to find cost- and fuel-saving efficiencies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and foster technologies to protect public health and the environment.”

EPA’s online data publication tool allows use cellular router  rs to view and sort GHG data for calendar year 2010 from over 6,700 facilities in a variety of ways—including by facility, location, industrial sector, and the type of GHG emitted. This information can be used by communities to identify nearby sources of GHGs, help businesses compare and track emissions, and provide information to state and local governments.

GHG data for direct DIN-Rail router   emitters show that in 2010:

•Power plants were the largest stationary sources of direct emissions with 2,324 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (mmtCO2e), followed by petroleum refineries with emissions of 183 mmtCO2e.

•CO2 accounted for the largest share of direct GHG emissions with 95 percent, followed by methane with 4 percent, and nitrous oxide and fluorinated gases accounting for the remaining 1 percent.

•100 facilities each reported emissions over 7 mmtCO2e, including 96 power plants, two iron and steel mills and two refineries.

Mandated by the FY2008 Consolidated Appropriations Act, EPA launched the GHG Reporting Program in October 2009, requiring the reporting of GHG data from large emission sources across a range of industry sectors, as well as suppliers of products that would emit GHGs if released or combusted. Most reporting entities submitted data for calendar year 2010. However, an additional 12 source categories will begin reporting t remote connectivity  heir 2011 GHG data this year.

Access EPA’s GHG Reporting Program Data and Data Publication Tool.

Image: EPA

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M router  IT Study Shows Tiny Plankton Have a Big Effect on the Ocean’s Carbon Storage

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New research from MIT and Bristol University reveal that microscopic, mixotrophic organisms may have a large impact on the ocean’s food web and the global carbon cycle.

How do you find your food? Most animal species, whether they rummage through a refrigerator or stalk prey in the wild, obtain nutrients by consuming living organisms. Plants, for the most part, adopt a different feeding, or “trophic,” strategy, making their own food through photosynthesis. There are, however, certain enterprising species that can do both: photosynthesize and consume prey. These organisms, found mostly in certain ocean plankton communities, live a flexible, “mixotrophic” lifestyle.

The scientists developed a mixotrophic model of the global ocean food web, at the scale of marine plankton, in which they gave each plankton class the ability to both photosynthesize and consume prey. They found that, compared with traditional models that do not take mixotrophs into account, their model produced larger, heavier plankton throughout the ocean. As these more substantial microbes die, the researchers found they increase the flux of sinking organic carbon particles by as much as 35 percent.

The results, says Mick Follows, associate professor in MIT’s Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, suggest that mixotrophic organisms may make the ocean more efficient in storing carbon, which in turn enhances the efficiency with which the oceans sequester carbon dioxide.

“If [mixotrophs] weren’t in the oceans, we’re suggesting atmospheric carbon dioxide might be higher, because there would less of the large, carbon-rich particles formed which efficiently transfer carbon to depth,” Follows says. “It’s a hypothesis, but it has been ignored in carbon cycle models until now, and we suggest it must be represented because it’s potentially very important.”

Follows and his colleague Ben Ward, a former MIT postdoc now at Bristol University, have published their results today in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Part of the equation

Today’s ocean models typically take an “either/or&rdquo3g wireless router; approach, grouping plankton as either photosynthesizers or consumers of prey. This approach, Follows says, oversimplifies the processes taking place in the ocean that may ultimately contribute to how carbon moves through the oceans and atmosphere. He says mixotrophs are often overlooked, because our terrestrial experience makes them seem rare.

“To us on land, we tend to think of [mixotrophs], like Venus fly traps, as exotic — they are a curiosity to us,” Follows says. “Our traditional perspective is biased by the land, where organisms fall into one or the other category, rather strictly. But in the oceans, the more people have looked at plankton, the more mixotrophy seems to be common.”

The problem is that there are very few data to work into models, as it’s extremely difficult to observe trophic strategies at the microscopic plankton scale. Therefore, models have largely left mixotrophs out of the equation and have instead looked to other marine processes to try and explain how much carbon is stored in the oceans.

“It’s like if we have a weather forecast model that gets the rain right in Boston today, but for the wrong reasons,” Follows says. “If we use it tomorrow, we shouldn’t expect it to do a good job, because it was cooked up for today. We want our climate model to be representative of the processes going on, in order to be predictive of how carbon storage responds to global change.”

Making a (mixotrophic) living

As a first step, Follows and Ward chose to simulate a virtual world in which every plankton class is potentially mixotrophic.

“It’s a very idealized, black-and-white case: What’s the maximum impact mixotrophs could have?” Follows says.

In the oceans, plankton can range in size from less than 1 micron, to about 1 millimeter in diameter. Typical ocean models that incorporate plankton often group them in 10 general size classes, each of which fall into a “two-guild” structure, as either photosynthesizers, or consumers of prey.

Instead, Follows and Ward made all of the plankton mixotrophic. The organisms in the model can photosynthesize, consuming inorganic nutrients. (The smallest organisms are the most efficient at acquiring those resources.) They can also eat other plankton and are constrained to consume prey in size classes about ten times smaller than themselves.

“After we have built in these rules for the system, whether each size class lives largely by photosynthesis or largely by predation depends upon the availability of each type of resource and their relative ability to harvest them in each environment,” Follows says.

After running the model forward, the researchers compared the results to those of a traditional model without mixotrophs. They found both models showed a general feeding structure throughout the plankton food web: The smallest organisms were too small to ingest prey, while the largest plankton were poor competitors when living by photosynthesis.

However, where the traditional model made a strict separation between those that photosynthesize and those that don’t, the mixotrophic model blurred those lines, with some smaller organisms consuming prey and some larger ones being able to photosynthesize. The result was that mixotrophic organisms in every class increased the average size of that organism, creating larger and heavier plankton throughout the oceans. These more substantial organisms, compared to smaller and lighter plankton, were more capable of sinking to the ocean floor, as carbon-containing detritus.

“It essentially means that, through multiple means, in a world with mixotrophs, more organic carbon is sinking into the deep ocean than in a world without mixotrophs,” Follows says.

The team’s estimate of the amount of sinking carbon contributed by mixotrophs appears to agree with recent observations of carbon flux by mixotrophic plankton in the North Atlantic. Follows says that, with more data on these opportunistic organisms, he hopes to improve the model to accurately reflect mixotrophic populations and their effect on the planet’s carbon cycle.

“Part of our hope is for the work is to give some wind to  wireless router the sails of these observational studies. We think they’re very valuable,” Follows says. “There may be a large fraction of grazing that is being done by mixotrophs, so it’s potentially very significant in terms of the flow of carbon in the ocean and it should be quantified.”

This research was funded, in part, by the Simons Foundation, the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, NASA, and the National Science Fo 3G 4G LTE  undation.

Publication: Ben A. Ward and Michael J. Follows, “Marine mixotrophy increases trophic transfer efficiency, mean organism size, and vertical carbon flux,” PNAS 2016; doi:10.1073/pnas.1517118113

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