#romanrepublic

[olivermarinkoski]

Ad Astra © Oliver Ler Marinkoski 2021 If the Roman republic had a space program #sculpture #bust #3d #render #cosmonaut #astronaut #rome #romanrepublic #romanempire #space #spaceprogram #spacex #spqr #spaceprogram #ancientastronauts #ancientaliens https://www.instagram.com/p/CW210ODMnuM/?utm_medium=tumblr

[howthingsendhistory]

Roman Republic #3 -- Get yourself an army!

Today I want to look at the next important populist politician in Rome, a general named Marius. He became prominent about 15 years after Gaius, the younger Gracchus brother died. He was from a modest background and, like the Gracchus brothers, wanted to help lessen the economic inequality in Rome. What lesson do you think he took from the lives of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus? It wasn’t what you might think — instead of deciding not to bend the rules of the Roman republic it was to bend them — and make sure you have the backing of a loyal army when you do.

Marius and the Gracchi faced a difficult question. If you have a system which has been clearly constructed to keep the powerful in power and make the wealthy wealthier, do you have a moral obligation toward within the system? Or is it better to break the system if necessary, taking advantage of any loopholes or cracks in the edifice you can find?

Gaius Marius was a legendary military commander. Despite the fact that he was a new man — someone not from an established political family — he worked his way up the ladder of Roman politics and was elected consul, the highest executive post in the government, in 107, after running against some inept and corrupt aristocrats. He was a breath of fresh air for Rome — a new face who could get things done and finally win a war in Africa that previous consuls had been unable to win. 

Gaius Marius (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marius_Glyptothek_Munich_319.jpg)

After taking power, Marius enacted a very important reform — he allowed any Roman to join the army. This was sort of a win-win policy. Rome, as it expanded, was burdening its soldiers more and more, and frankly was growing short of men. Meanwhile, the military was a chance to make some money and, if a soldier was on an especially successful campaign, get some land from conquered people. Up until Marius, Rome had required soldiers to pay for their own equipment, and to own land, which of course limited the pool of potential soldiers. Marius recruited soldiers without asking whether they owned land, which made him a hero of the downtrodden, especially the jobless people in the cities. Marius used this rejuvenated army to win the war in Africa and become Rome’s newest military hero.

In 105, two years after Marius had been consul, Rome was invaded, this time from the north. Several Roman armies were humiliated by the invading Germanic tribes, and Romans needed Marius again. Unfortunately for Marius, a norm had been established in Roman government that consuls should wait a significant amount of time before running for the office again. This tradition had developed over time, and it had been about 50 years since a Roman consul had regained the office less than 10 years after having held it the last time. No matter — panicky Romans set aside these traditions, and elected Marius in 104, 103, 102, 101, and 100 BC. By the election in 100, the war with the Germanic invaders was over — Marius was just so popular that he kept getting elected. This was unprecedented in Roman history — even in the early days when consuls had run for office more frequently, no one had been elected five straight times. And the army was now made up of salaried professional soldiers, not the drafted citizens of property it had been made up of before. And these soldiers owed their livelihoods and future wealth to Marius. They were loyal to him — not the government of Rome —  and were now a tool for him to use against his political enemies. This would become the template for future Roman politicians, like Julius Caesar, who wanted to combine politics popularity with military strength.

Also in 100, the populists, with whom Marius was allied, went overboard, having one of Marius’ enemies exiled and killing another opponent. The assassination led to riots around the Republic. The Senate, still controlled by the oligarchs of Rome, ordered Marius to put down these protests. He did. The radical populists who had been allied with Marius, hiding in what they thought was a safe house, were murdered as rioters hurled down heavy roof tiles on their heads. The chaos of that year led Marius to stop running for consul. He retired, traveling around the Republic and enjoying his wealth. But there was a network of professional military men who owed him and could be activated if the reforms that he had made on behalf of ordinary Romans were ever threatened. So in this case, a popular politician broke the Roman constitution and was basically allowed to do so because of his popularity... until the tension in Rome became so great that violence broke out. But would Marius’ stretching of the rules lead to future abuses? We’ll see how they did that, ending in the first of several Roman civil wars, next time.

{HTE}

[sassy-cicero-says]

Here's a closer look at a couple of the #Roman coins in the @classicsutas Museum. Neil, the curator, picked out some nice examples from the late Republican and early Imperial periods for us. #Classics #numismatics #materialculture #artefacts #RomanRepublic #RomanEmpire #imperiumromanum #teaching https://www.instagram.com/p/Boc1UmIFCPo/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=1do9p901flzpj

[whencyclopedia]

Secession of the Plebs: One of History's First Class Conflicts

In 494 BCE, the plebeians (commoners) protested their mistreatment by the ruling patrician class with a mass exodus from Rome. Leaving the patricians to fend for themselves, they set up camp on the Sacred Mountain three miles (5 km) away and forced the Senate to negotiate. Discover how Rome's plebeians won their rights through some of the first mass general strikes in Western history.

Read More

⇒ Secession of the Plebs: One of History's First Class Conflicts

[whencyclopedia]

Education for Girls in Ancient Rome

The upbringing and education of girls in ancient Rome are rarely addressed in ancient sources. A young Roman girl from an affluent family married very young, often in her mid-teens, and girls, according to tradition, were brought up solely for marriage and to bear children. A Roman girl's formal education, mainly dictated by the prospect of early betrothal, was short-lived.

"Sappho" fresco, Pompeii

Carole Raddato (CC BY-SA)

Although education was seen as crucial to self-advancement, the Roman education system was directed towards a young boy's 'career' in politics or in the Roman law courts. It prepared the boy for his entrance into public life and was key to him obtaining a prominent position in Roman government and society.

The Roman Education System

Formal education for children began at about the age of seven years; girls from affluent and elite levels of society would have received an elementary education at home from a private tutor, as would the boys. However, if a father did not employ private tutors, children may have been enrolled in schools outside of the home. This early education for both sexes would have included reading, writing, maths, and Greek and Latin literature. Plutarch (c.45-50 to c.120-125 CE) writes of nine-year-old Pompeia, daughter of Pompey, proudly reciting verses to her father from Homer's Illiad (Quaest. Conv. 9.1.3).

On completion of this elementary level, boys aged around 12, progressed onto classes at the school of the grammaticus, where they would develop and refine their writing and speaking skills as well as study philosophy, astronomy, and natural science; it is here that boys also began their preparation for oratorical studies. Girls did not attend the schools of the grammaticus. At the age of 15 or so, having possibly assumed the adult toga as part of a Roman boy's rite of passage, boys then moved on to the rhetor where they would learn to become skilful orators, study law, politics, astronomy, geography, Roman and Greek literature, philosophy and mythology. The wealthy young males might then further their education by joining fellow Roman students in Athens and other intellectual centres in the Far East. Roman girls by the age of 15, could already be married, could already be mothers, and if not, they were being prepared to be such.

Continue reading...

[whencyclopedia]

Dogs in Ancient Rome

Dogs were more than pets in ancient Rome—they were vital helpers in daily life. Romans valued dogs as hunters, guardians, and companions, but they saw them primarily as practical partners, unlike the symbolic meanings dogs had in other cultures.

Practical Roles of Roman Dogs

Romans used dogs for many purposes: hunting, guarding homes, tracking, and even fighting alongside warriors. While Egyptians and Persians emphasized spiritual or afterlife roles for dogs, Romans focused on their usefulness. For example, Roman collars, sometimes made of gold, were not just decorative but served a practical purpose in managing and identifying dogs.

Dogs and Roman Beliefs

Dogs were thought to protect against ghosts and evil spirits, offering more than just physical security. They were deeply integrated into myths and daily life, symbolizing loyalty and protection rather than spiritual significance. Romans honored their dogs by caring for them like family and even dedicating tombs with epitaphs when they died.

Key Facts

Roman dogs performed multiple roles: hunters, guardians, companions, trackers, and fighters.

Dog collars in Rome were practical, unlike the spiritual or artistic expressions seen elsewhere.

Dogs were believed to protect owners from ghosts and evil spirits.

Romans treated dogs as family members and commemorated them with tombs and epitaphs.

The tradition of dog use likely began with the Etruscans before Rome’s rise.

Historical Context

Dogs were domesticated and used worldwide in ancient civilizations, each assigning different cultural significances to them. Rome incorporated dogs from earlier Italian cultures like the Etruscans and adapted their roles to fit Roman practical and societal needs.

Historical Significance

Roman dogs highlight the culture’s grounded, practical view of animals as functional allies. Their treatment of dogs reflects broader Roman values—emphasizing utility, loyalty, and protection. The legacy of Roman dog roles influenced later European attitudes toward dogs as working animals and beloved companions.

This practical but affectionate relationship between Romans and dogs shows how animals helped shape everyday Roman life and belief.

Learn More: Dogs & Their Collars in Ancient Rome

[whencyclopedia]

Caesar, the Flawed Genius

Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE) often appears as a flawed genius. A genius, he dominated his generation. Flawed, he was murdered for the way in which he did so. Caesar changed Rome, destroying the centuries-old Republican form of Roman government based on annually elected magistrates. He also changed the shape of Europe by attaching France to the Mediterranean world. It is not at all clear whether the failing government of Rome in the 1st century BCE would have accomplished any such thing on its own. The conquest of Gaul required the vision of a man operating outside the bounds of the Roman constitution, and the skill of one of history's greatest military minds.

The fundamental questions that Caesar's career raises are connected with the nature of democratic institutions. Can democratic institutions work effectively and consistently in the interests of the majority of their citizens, delivering the benefits of an orderly society in an equitable fashion? Or are those institutions inherently flawed, enabling self-interested actors to seize control of their operation, and hence doomed to failure when citizens weary of the non-delivery of the benefits they expect? When democratic institutions falter, will the citizens of a democracy turn inevitably to a strongman who promises he will deliver what others have failed to? Is Caesar a model for others, or is he a unique political figure whose powerful intelligence and organizational capacity set him apart not only from his contemporaries but from generations of would-be successors?

Being Caesar

Being Caesar was not easy. It required patience and a capacity to listen. Even those who did not like him admitted that Caesar was an exceptionally bright, highly cultivated man with the ability to win others to his side through the power of his arguments. These are not qualities that many aspiring dictators possess. Although Caesar himself was no democrat, he did genuinely care for people who were less fortunate than himself and for the well-being of the individuals who served him. In his accounts of the wars he fought first in Gaul and then of the civil war he began when he crossed the Rubicon in 49 BCE, he is very clear that his thinking while on campaign included consideration of the welfare of his men, and he inspired genuine loyalty among those who were closest to him. While Caesar was absolutely convinced that the democratic institutions of the Roman Republic were inefficient and could not provide effective government for the empire Rome had acquired, his understanding of how to fix the situation changed with circumstances. It was the ability to adjust that enabled Caesar to become Cassius's colossus.

We can know Caesar better than virtually any other figure prior to Saint Augustine, his contemporary Cicero (106-43 BCE) excepted, through a close reading of his own works. In particular, we can learn a great deal from what he has to say about himself and his principles of administration. He has a great deal to tell us about how he understood his role as a general, the role of politics in strategic planning, the management of an organization, and the enormous attention to detail that is necessary if a leader is to be successful. The organization Caesar built in the decade he was in Gaul was stronger than the state he ostensibly served. He deployed this organization to transform that state.

Read More

⇒ Caesar, the Flawed Genius

[whencyclopedia]

This map illustrates the rise and fall of Carthage, a powerful Phoenician city-state that dominated the western Mediterranean from its founding circa 650 BCE. Carthage expanded its influence through trade, establishing colonies across North Africa, Spain, and Sicily, creating a prosperous empire that clashed with the Roman Republic over control of the Mediterranean. The conflict between Carthage...