#suburbanization

[bauzeitgeist]

Conoco Philips Headquarters, Houston, Texas. Kevin Roche John Dinkeloo Associates, 1986. 

Posted in fond memory of Kevin Roche, 1922-2019.

[njhgc]

From factories to corporate parks: Morris County and the wealth belt

From the Civil War through World War II, cities generated the vast majority of the Garden State’s wealth, thus attracting the lion’s share of investment and skilled workers, as well as its factories, commercial establishments, and entertainment venues.

In 1909, the City of Newark alone employed over 20 percent of the entire state’s population and was the source of one-fourth of all wages earned in New Jersey.

After World War II, new home construction gravitated towards cheaper and more abundant suburban land. While most heavy industry remained anchored in large cities, by the 1960s companies began opening satellite offices, or moved their headquarters to suburban office parks.

This migration away from urban cores resulted from numerous factors, including changing manufacturing trends, lower property tax rates, and rising inequality and social unrest.

Passage of the National Highway Act of 1956 further encouraged residential and business development away from cities and into previously agricultural land.

As suburban counties attracted new businesses and workers, the construction of Interstates 80 and 287 helped create a suburban “wealth belt” from northeastern to central New Jersey, which benefited from all aspects of America’s post-industrial economy.

From the 1960s through the 1970s, Morris County’s corporate parks manufactured electronics, petrochemicals, aviation instruments, and pharmaceuticals. During this period, the “wealth belt” grew to employ 50 percent of all workers in the state. Overall, 2.1 million individuals now worked in Bergen, Passaic, Morris, Somerset, Union, Middlesex, and Monmouth counties.

Warner-Lambert was the first corporate enterprise to move its headquarters to Morris County, relocating from Brooklyn to Morris Plains in 1947. Here, the company developed and manufactured medical devices and consumer products such as Listerine, cough syrups, antacids, chewing gum, mints, and other products, generating sales of $1.25 billion in 1970. By 1983, its staff of 3,000 made it one of the county’s largest employers.

The Mennen Company found its start as a Newark drugstore, opening in 1878 on the corner of Broad Street and Central Avenue. The small business made a name for itself marketing high-quality talcum powder, sold in a convenient metal container with a shaker built into the lid.

As the company grew, Mennen moved its headquarters in 1953 to a modern Morris Township facility that manufactured deodorant, shampoo, aftershave, fragrances, and baby powder. Mennen remained a family company through the early 1980s, and prided itself on valuing its 2,000 employees as much as the quality of its products.

The Thomas Leeming Company began as a small manufacturer of antiseptic and analgesic ointments originally developed by Parisian Doctor Bengue. Leeming purchased the rights to market it in the United States as Ben-Gay Ointment.

After moving to Parsippany from Union City in 1958, the Leeming Company merged with Pfizer in 1961. By 1982, Pfizer sales surpassed $100 million, with products ranging from medical products to Barbasol shaving cream to Visine eye drops.

A series of mergers and acquisitions in following decades made Pfizer one of the nation’s largest pharmaceutical manufacturers, with 2018 revenue of more than $53 billion.

By 1980, the list of companies migrating westward from New York City to establish headquarters or satellite offices in Morris County included: AT&T, Exxon, Nabisco, Silver Burdett Co., Weichert Realtors, Artisan Electronics, Allied Chemical and Dye Corp., and 40 other Fortune 500 companies.

Through this decade these companies created more than 173 million square feet of office space in suburban north and central New Jersey.

Corporate parks and light manufacturing defined Morris County’s industrial base for decades, even as individual companies merged with larger corporations, or continued to pursue new manufacturing technologies and alternate labor forces elsewhere.

Some businesses, such as Weichert Realtors, Novartis, and GAF Materials Corporation, continue to operate in the area. The site of other longtime companies, like Morris Township’s Mennen facility and Honeywell campus, have found a new life as mixed residential- and retail developments.

Sources:

Joseph A. Grabas, Owning New Jersey: Historic Tales of War, Property Disputes, and the Pursuit of Happiness, Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2014

Maxine Lurie and Richard Viet, eds. New Jersey: A History of the Garden State, Rutgers University Press: New Brunswick, 2012

Dorrianne R. Perrucci, Morris County: the Progress of Its Legend, Woodland Hills, CA; Windsor Publications, 1983

The collections of the North Jersey History & Genealogy Center, Morristown & Morris Township Library

The Changing Landscape of Morris County is on view through 2019 in the F.M. Kirby Gallery on the second floor of the Morristown & Morris Township Library.

[cdsix]

After Multiple Deployments, Coming Home to a Changed Country

The suburbanization of one soldier's Nebraska hometown becomes a metaphor for the civilian-military divide and our failed war policies.

[urbangeographies]

HOUSTON AFTER HURRICANE HARVEY:  How urban planning (or lack thereof), contributed to the “natural” disaster

Since Hurricane Harvey hit Houston and other parts of the Gulf Coast in August 2017, a debate has arisen in the press and urban planning sites about the role of local policy in the flooding. While there was going to be massive flooding with a weather event of this magnitude, there is broad agreement among that enlightenedNew York Times, 11 NOV. 2017 urban planning and public policy could have lessened the severity of the environmental devastation to some degree.

Despite the appeal of unregulated growth in what has been called “free-enterprise city,” it is time for Houston and other large metropolises to reflect on their growth patterns and see how to conserve environments that contribute to resilience, while protecting residents’ lives, health, homes and real-estate investments. Ed Glaeser, the Harvard economist and author of “Triumph of the City” says that Houston could restrict housing in its flood plains and preserve more open space from development without substantially raising housing costs. 

An excellent review of the lessons from Hurricane Harvey in Houston by Michael Kimmelman of The New York Times (11 NOV. 2017), from which the map above is drawn, also includes the following commentary:

The story of Harvey, Houston and the city’s difficult path forward is a quintessentially American tale. Time and again, America has bent the land to its will, imposing the doctrine of Manifest Destiny on nature’s most daunting obstacles. We have bridged the continent with railways and roads, erected cities in the desert, and changed the course of rivers.

Built on a mosquito-infested Texas swamp, Houston similarly willed itself into a great city. It is the country’s energy capital, home to oil and carbon-producing giants, to the space industry, medical research and engineers of every stripe. Its sprawl of highways and single-family homes is a postwar version of the American dream.

Unfortunately, nature always gets the last word. Houston’s growth contributed to the misery Harvey unleashed. The very forces that pushed the city forward are threatening its way of life.

Sprawl is only part of the story. Houston is also built on an upbeat, pro-business strategy of low taxes and little government. Many Texans regard this as the key to prosperity, an antidote to Washington. It encapsulates a potent vision of an unfettered America.

Harvey called that concept into question. It may have been an unusually bad hurricane, dumping trillions of gallons of water in a few days, even more to the east of the city than to the west, in the prairie, and setting all kinds of records. But it was also the third big storm to slam Houston in three years, dispelling any notion that Houston shouldn’t expect more of the same.

Source:  MICHAEL KIMMELMAN, New York Times, 11 NOV. 2017

[bauzeitgeist]

Conoco Philips Headquarters, Houston, Texas. Kevin Roche John Dinkeloo Associates, 1986.

Posted in fond memory of Kevin Roche, 1922-2019.

[unitedstatesrei]

The GI Bill Built the Middle Class (250 Years of American Real Estate)

Key TakeawaysThe GI Bill expanded access to education, job training, counseling, and low-down-payment home loans for many veterans.Its benefits helped fuel middle-class growth through college attendance, homeownership, stable careers, and family savings.Unequal access limited opportunities for many Black, women, Latino, and Native veterans, shaping the GI Bill’s complicated legacy.How Veterans’ Benefits Reshaped American LifeThe GI Bill helped build the American middle class by giving veterans tuition aid, job training, counseling, and low-down-payment home loans. You can see its impact in crowded classrooms, new single-family suburbs, steady careers, and family savings. It helped many veterans become teachers, engineers, business owners, and skilled workers. But unfair access blocked many Black, women, Latino, and Native veterans. Its legacy shows how public investment can open doors when opportunity reaches everyone, and there’s more to uncover.How the GI Bill Transformed Postwar AmericaWhen World War II ended, millions of American veterans came home carrying both hope and heavy memories. You can imagine their relief, yet you can also feel the weight they carried into quiet kitchens, crowded trains, and hometown streets.The GI Bill helped you see a new promise take shape. It gave veterans money for college, housing, and vocational retraining, so they could build steady lives with dignity. You watched former soldiers become teachers, engineers, shop owners, and skilled workers.This law also changed how you understood veteran mentalhealth. It didn’t erase pain, but it offered purpose, routine, and a path forward. Through education and work, veterans helped build strong families, growing neighborhoods, and a wider middle class across America. In this way, the GI Bill reflected an early form of holistic wealth, connecting financial stability with purpose, relationships, and community growth.Why Returning Veterans Faced an Uncertain EconomyComing home should have felt like a fresh start, but for many veterans, the road ahead was anything but clear. Wartime jobs were disappearing, prices were climbing, and every dollar had to go further.Finding steady work, buying a home, and building a secure future suddenly became major challenges. That’s where new government support programs began to play an important role. Even today, housing policy can shape opportunity, as mortgage delinquencies and foreclosure risks show how quickly economic pressure can threaten homeownership.Wartime Jobs DisappearedWartime factories powered down almost as fast as they'd roared to life, and millions of returning veterans stepped into a job market filled with worry. You came home ready to work, but many defense jobs had vanished.Plants canceled contracts, so you faced wartime unemployment in towns built around production.Employers had to shift from tanks and planes to peacetime goods, creating demobilization challenges.Families counted on your paycheck, yet steady civilian work often took time to find.You didn’t just need a job. You needed a path back into daily life, dignity, and hope. That uncertainty made the GI Bill matter. It gave you training, education, and a stronger chance to build a stable future.Inflation Strained Family BudgetsAs the war ended, prices rose faster than many families could handle. You came home hoping for peace, but bills met you at the door. Rising grocery prices made every meal feel planned, measured, and stretched.What You FacedHow It FeltHigher rentYou feared losing homeCostly breadYou counted each sliceExpensive milkYou worried for childrenShrinking household savingsYou watched hope thinUnsteady wagesYou delayed every dreamYou didn’t just need a job. You needed steady ground. Each dollar had to cover food, rent, clothes, and medicine. The GI Bill mattered because it offered a path through this pressure. It helped you imagine school, work, and a safer future.What GI Bill Benefits Promised VeteransCongress promised veterans a bridge from battlefields back to everyday American life.

You could come home, breathe again, and see a path forward when prices felt heavy and jobs felt uncertain.You received education stipends that helped cover books, fees, and living costs.You gained access to vocational training, so you could build practical skills for steady work.You could seek low-interest home loans, which helped you imagine a safe front porch, a yard, and roots.These benefits told you that your service mattered after the uniform came off. They didn’t erase hardship, but they gave you tools. You could plan, work, and hope. For many families, that promise became the first step toward stability in postwar America.How GI Bill College Aid Expanded OpportunityCollege aid opened doors that many veterans once thought were locked. You could leave a battlefield and step into a classroom with tuition support, books, and a path forward. That shift turned hope into a real plan.You didn’t have to come from wealth to study. The GI Bill helped you enter universities, trade schools, and community colleges near home. Veteran counseling also helped you choose courses, manage paperwork, and believe you belonged.For many, college felt like unfamiliar ground. Still, you could sit beside other veterans, learn new skills, and build confidence one class at a time. The aid didn’t just pay bills. It told you your service mattered, and your future deserved investment. Like homeowners protecting hard-earned stability through early warning signs, veterans learned that support could prevent small setbacks from becoming lasting barriers. In that promise, opportunity became something you could reach with both hands.College Degrees Raised Veterans’ Earning PowerA college degree could change the course of a veteran’s life. With more education, you'd a better shot at steady work, higher wages, and long-term financial security.That meant more than just earning a diploma — it meant opening the door to careers that could support a family, build stability, and help more veterans move into the middle class. Greater income also made it easier for some families to pursue real estate investment as a path toward long-term wealth and security. Next, it helps to look at how those opportunities shaped the communities veterans returned to.Higher Lifetime EarningsEducation turned wartime service into enduring earning power for millions of U.S. veterans. You can see how a degree changed more than a paycheck. It changed a whole life path.You gained skills that made employers pay more.You followed stronger wage trajectories over many working years.You built higher lifetime earnings that supported homes, savings, and family stability.The GI Bill helped you turn classroom time into long-term income. Each course added confidence, knowledge, and value in the workplace.As your pay rose, your choices widened.You could buy better food, help children study, and plan for retirement with less fear. That steady rise didn't happen by accident. Education gave veterans a powerful tool, and they used it to build the American middle class.Degrees Opened CareersHigher lifetime earnings often began with one powerful step: earning a degree that opened a locked door. You could leave military service with discipline, but the GI Bill helped you turn that strength into a recognized qualification.A college diploma signaled that you were ready for teaching, engineering, accounting, medicine, or management. It gave employers proof they could understand and trust.You also gained choices through credential pathways and vocational certifications. These routes helped you enter skilled trades, technical jobs, and office careers without wasting time or money.With each class, you built confidence and value. You didn’t just chase a paycheck. You claimed a place in America’s growing middle class, where steady work, homeownership, and dignity felt within reach for your family.How GI Bill Mortgages Expanded HomeownershipOpened by the GI Bill, the door to homeownership swung wide for millions of U.

S. veterans who'd once thought a house was out of reach. You could buy with little or no down payment, and the federal guarantee helped lenders say yes.That changed mortgage underwriting. Banks saw you as a safer borrower because Washington backed part of the loan.You gained access to long-term, fixed-rate mortgages.You kept more savings for furniture, repairs, and children.You built equity instead of paying rent forever.Like a risk manager assessing threats before they become setbacks, the GI Bill’s loan guarantee helped reduce uncertainty for both veterans and lenders.Some veterans joined veteran cooperatives to lower costs and share risk. You didn’t just get keys. You gained a stake in America’s future, one porch, one yard, and one monthly payment at a time.Why GI Bill Suburbs Reshaped American LifeGI Bill mortgages helped turn open land into fast-growing suburbs of single-family homes, giving many families a new vision of stability and success.Life in these communities also created new routines built around cars, highways, and daily commutes to city jobs.But the rise of these suburbs didn’t just change where Americans lived—it reshaped what they believed a middle-class life should look like.Next, we’ll look at who benefited from that promise and who was often left out.Suburban Homeownership BoomAfter World War II, the GI Bill helped millions of veterans move out of crowded city apartments and into new single-family homes. You could see hope rising in fresh lawns, quiet streets, and small houses that families could finally call their own.You gained a doorway to ownership through low-cost loans and stable monthly payments.You watched private developers build large suburbs quickly, making homeownership feel possible for many white veterans.You also saw redlining impacts shut out many Black veterans, even when they'd served the same country.This boom reshaped American dreams. You learned that a home could mean safety, pride, and a future for your children. Yet you also saw how unequal access shaped wealth for generations.New Commuter CultureAcross new highways and morning traffic, GI Bill suburbs created a new commuter culture that changed daily life. You left quiet streets before sunrise and joined lines of cars, buses, and trains moving toward city jobs.ChangeDaily EffectLonger tripsYou planned mornings carefullyShared routesYou learned transit etiquetteWeekday commuting reshaped your family rhythm. You packed lunches, checked schedules, and measured time by traffic lights and station clocks. The suburb promised space, but the paycheck still pulled you downtown.You also gained a new kind of independence. Your car became a bridge between home, work, school, and shopping. In that daily motion, you helped build modern American life, one determined trip at a time.How the GI Bill Supported Stable CareersOpened new doors, the GI Bill helped millions of U.S. veterans turn military service into steady civilian work. You could use education benefits to enter classrooms, workshops, and training programs that built clear career pathways. Instead of guessing your next step, you gained direction, confidence, and proof of skill certification.You learned practical skills that employers needed in growing U.S. industries.You earned credentials that showed you were ready for reliable work.You moved from wartime service into long-term careers with purpose.This support gave you more than a paycheck. It gave you roots, dignity, and a reason to plan ahead. When stable work became possible, you could support a family, buy a home, and help build the American middle class.GI Bill Loans Helped Veterans Start BusinessesThe GI Bill opened up another path for veterans who wanted to build something of their own. You could use loan support to open a shop, buy equipment, or fund a service that your town needed.These benefits helped turn military discipline into veteran entrepreneurship. You brought planning, courage, and teamwork into daily business decisions.

Across the United States, veterans started small businesses that served neighbors and created jobs. You might picture a repair garage, a grocery store, a trucking service, or a family-run diner with the owner behind the counter.The loans didn’t remove every risk, but they gave you a stronger start. For many veterans, that chance meant dignity, purpose, and a real role in shaping America’s growing middle class.How GI Bill Benefits Built Family WealthBusiness ownership gave many veterans a paycheck, but GI Bill benefits helped families build something that could endure. You can see this wealth in homes, degrees, savings, and steady neighborhoods.You bought a home with lower barriers, then watched home equity grow as property values rose.You used education benefits to earn better pay, and that income supported children, repairs, and savings.You passed stability forward, turning one veteran’s benefit into intergenerational wealth.When you envision this, imagine a small house, a paid tuition bill, and a kitchen table where parents plan a safer future. The GI Bill didn’t just change monthly budgets. It gave many families a foundation they could stand on, protect, and hand to the next generation.Who Was Denied Full GI Bill Access?Although the GI Bill promised a brighter future, many Black veterans, women veterans, Latino veterans, Native veterans, and other minority service members didn’t receive full access to its benefits.You can see Racial exclusion in how local banks, colleges, and housing offices blocked Black veterans from loans, admissions, and safe neighborhoods.You also see Gender disparity when women veterans faced doubt, fewer services, and pressure to return home instead of using education or job training.Latino and Native veterans often met language barriers, poor outreach, and unfair treatment from local officials.You should remember these veterans served the same country and carried the same hopes.Yet many had to fight again, this time for the benefits they earned and the dignity they deserved.Why the GI Bill Still Matters TodayAfter World War II, the GI Bill helped shape the U.S. middle class, and its impact still reaches your life today. You see it in campuses, neighborhoods, and careers built from service and sacrifice.You can understand how education opened doors for millions.You can notice how home loans helped families plant roots.You can support benefit awareness so today’s veterans don’t miss help they’ve earned.The GI Bill still matters because veterans carry stories, skills, and burdens into civilian life. When you connect benefits with veteran mentalhealth, you help protect dignity, hope, and stability.You also learn why fair access matters. If you value opportunity, you can honor past service by helping veterans find clear paths to school, work, housing, and healing.What the GI Bill Teaches About Public InvestmentIn the years since World War II, the GI Bill has shown you how smart public investment can change everyday lives. You can see its lesson in classrooms, homes, businesses, and communities where veterans built stable futures.When you fund education and housing, you don’t just help one person. You help families grow stronger, workers earn more, and neighborhoods gain hope. That’s the power of civic returns.The GI Bill teaches you that government can open doors when it invests with purpose. It also reminds you that access matters, because unfair rules once left many Black veterans behind.You can carry this lesson forward. Public investment works best when it reaches people fairly, builds skills, and helps more Americans believe their future is possible.Frequently Asked QuestionsHow Much Did the Original GI Bill Cost Taxpayers?You’d estimate the original GI Bill cost taxpayers about $14.5 billion by 1956. Cost estimates vary slightly, but its fiscal impact included tuition, unemployment benefits, and low-interest home loans for millions of veterans after WWII.Who Wrote and Sponsored the GI Bill Legislation?Like a relay baton, Legislative authorship passed through Harry W.

Colmery, who drafted it. You’ll see Sponsorship politics in Representative John Rankin and Senator Bennett Champ Clark, who sponsored the 1944 GI Bill.When Did GI Bill Benefits Expire for World War II Veterans?World War II GI Bill benefits expired July 25, 1956. You’d track veteran deadlines from the 1944 law’s enactment, and benefit expiration ended education, training, and loan guaranty access for eligible WWII veterans after that date.How Did Colleges Handle the Sudden Surge in Veteran Enrollment?Like floodgates opening, colleges expanded fast: you’d see temporary classrooms, hired instructors, streamlined admissions, vocational training programs, and weekend classes. They converted barracks, used night schedules, and partnered with communities so veterans could enroll.What Criticisms Did the GI Bill Face When First Proposed?Critics feared costs and abuse. You’d hear a Fiscal conservatism debate over federal spending, plus Concerns about race, since benefits could reinforce segregation. Some also worried veterans’ aid might discourage work or overwhelm colleges.AssessmentThe GI Bill didn’t just hand out checks. It opened doors for millions of veterans, helping them reach college, buy homes, build careers, and chase dreams that once felt out of reach. In a real way, it helped build the middle class.But the story also has hard edges, because too many Americans were shut out of those same opportunities. Still, the lesson is clear: when the U.S. invests in people, families rise, communities grow, and the future gets a better chance.

[urbandiaries-by-sofea]

Blog Post #1: The Discontinuous Cores of Los Angeles

The Los Angeles School discussed in class compelled me to recall my recent experience travelling to Los Angeles with my best friends. With a focus on postmodernism, the Los Angeles School suggested a new urban model defined by fragmented and split urban growth and the decline of metropolitan centers. This hypothesis offers a different way of viewing city growth compared to Burgess’s Concentric-Zone Hypothesis (a product of the Chicago School), which suggested that industrial cities grew radially through a series of concentric zones.

One thing that struck me while planning my trip to Los Angeles is how Los Angeles has multiple core areas in the periphery and not strictly in Downtown Los Angeles (DTLA). It seems like a city composed of a sum of disconnected cores, each with its unique character, and devoid of traditional city centers. I could see how automobiles must have been an essential factor in the development of Los Angeles, given that I find it particularly difficult to commute from one core area or suburb to another with public transport. I also recall how amazed I was to see how incredibly diverse and multicultural Los Angeles is. This is consistent with what Charles Jencks said about Los Angeles, whereby “No single ethnic group, nor way of life, nor industrial sector, dominates the scene.” (Palen’s book, p. 76)

As I walked on the streets of DTLA during my trip, I noticed that office buildings, banks, and hotels dominate most spaces. While there are still a few departmental stores left like Macy’s, in my eyes, the retail scene is not as vibrant as I would have imagined in a big city. This observation aligns with our discussion in class about the out-movement of offices, manufacturing, retail trade, and people from the center city to the periphery areas (i.e., suburbs). The opening of large shopping centers like Valley Plaza and Lakewood Center was widespread in the county as massive suburbanization took off after World War II. By the 1960s, Los Angeles residents didn’t find the need to go to DTLA anymore to shop.  

Decentralization of economic activities and housing to locations outside of DTLA have certainly taken place in the City of Angels. Take Anaheim on the outskirts of Los Angeles, for example. While it is still part of Los Angeles County, it is a core area of its own and is popularly known for its theme parks. Another example that is integral to the Los Angeles School Hypothesis is Santa Monica which boasts itself of being the home to the headquarters of many businesses, tourist attractions, shopping districts, and real estates, despite being quite a distance from DTLA. Century City is also an example of an edge city that is a thriving business and commerce city outside of DTLA. It is anchored by a 1.3 million-square-feet outdoor shopping mall called Westfield Century City and is very much automobile-dependent.

While the Los Angeles School of Thoughts might be a better representation of the urban sprawl in Los Angeles today, this video showing the growth of Los Angeles from 1877 to 2000 made me think about how Burgess’s Concentric-Zone Hypothesis might have come into play in the city, especially in the early 20th century. Some articles I read also confirmed that the small towns that emerged in the early 1900s centered around the economically booming DTLA. Eventually, a 1,100-mile streetcar system came into the area, establishing an urban footprint there. I remember walking from our hotel in DTLA to Little Tokyo and observing how the buildings were gradually shorter as we walked further away from the financial district of DTLA. The financial district of DTLA can be best described as Zone I—the Central Business District. On the other hand, neighborhoods like Chinatown, Koreatown, and Little Tokyo are reflective of Zone 2—the zone in transition—since they were “immigrant settlements”. I believe that, in the early 1900s, there might be the influence of an urban growth pattern similar to the one described by Burgess when Los Angeles was a relatively small area. However, it was fascinating to see how, in the video, there seems to be concentric growth from different cores in Los Angeles (not necessarily the center city), especially after the 1940s, affirming the Los Angeles School of Thoughts Hypothesis.

As I reflect on this week’s and last week’s readings, I wonder what led to the emergence of these core areas in Los Angeles and how the simultaneous development of different core areas was possible. I look forward to learning more about the sustainability of cities and suburbs whose development was not dependent upon the conventional center cities and how these areas build economic independence.