#texasrevolution

[texas-newmexico-history]

Charles B. Stewart and the Texas State Flag

[paintballerrichard]

We'll be fighting for the American Side at Viper Paintball's Red Dawn event. #texasnightstalkers #texasrevolution #TexasNightstalkers #paintball (at Whatz-Up Fun Park) https://www.instagram.com/p/CgVINn6u0Vh/?igshid=NGJjMDIxMWI=

[houtexusa]

It’s #SanJacintoDay, commentating the final battle of the #TexasRevolution on April 21, 1836 where Texas won its independence from Mexico and became its own nation. The #SanJacintoMonument The monument was completed in 1939 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of #TexasIndependance in 1936. The #monument is the world's tallest masonry column. (at San Jacinto Monument) https://www.instagram.com/p/CN-JOqEJYiU/?igshid=qw5m9jywo157

[gentlemensherald]

Jeffrey Dean Morgan as Captain Erastus “Deaf” Smith

(Texas rising, History, 2015)

[whencyclopedia]

Mexican-American War

The Mexican-American War (1846-1848) was a conflict between the United States and Mexico, sparked by the US annexation of Texas in 1845. Hoping to seize even more territory from Mexico, US President James K. Polk (served 1845-1849) used the Texas dispute to provoke a war, precipitating the US invasions of California, New Mexico, and the Mexican heartland. After the fall of Mexico City in September 1847, the Mexican government relinquished 529,000 square miles of territory to the US in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The war has often been regarded as an unjust invasion, both by contemporaries and later historians, and would only inflame the sectional divisions in the US that would lead to the American Civil War (1861-1865).

Background

In 1821, after over a decade of perpetual conflict, the Mexican War of Independence came to an end. For Mexico, the cost of winning independence from Spain came not only in blood but also in coin, as the once prosperous colony found its economy in tatters. Money barely circulated, the silver mines of Zacatecas and Guanajuato had been devastated, and throughout the country, ranches and farms stood deserted. To revitalize its economy and protect its vulnerable northern territories from Comanche and Apache raids, Mexico decided to invite Anglo-American settlers into Texas to exploit the region's untapped resources. Thousands of Anglo-Americans flooded into Texas – many of them bringing slaves – so that by 1830, the US transplants outnumbered the Hispanic Tejanos by more than two to one. Eventually, relations between these Anglo-American settlers and the Mexican government deteriorated, especially after Mexico abolished slavery. In October 1835, the settlers – who called themselves 'Texians' – rebelled, sparking the Texas Revolution (1835-36).

Initially, the Mexican army under Antonio López de Santa Anna (1794-1876) got the better of the rebels, scoring a victory at the Battle of the Alamo (23 February to 6 March 1836) and butchering 400 Texian prisoners at the Goliad Massacre (27 March). But the tide abruptly turned at the Battle of San Jacinto (21 April), when Texian forces under Gen. Sam Houston (1793-1863) surprised and defeated the Mexican army. Santa Anna was taken captive and forced to sign a treaty recognizing Texas' independence. But since the treaty was signed under duress – Santa Anna likely would have been executed had he not signed – it was not ratified by the Mexican Congress, which refused to recognize Texian independence. Thus, for the next several years, periodic fighting erupted across the Mexico-Texas border, as Texas began to operate like an independent republic. These events were closely watched by the United States. Since 1803, the US had claimed Texas, believing it to have been a rightful part of the Louisiana Purchase. Spain, however, had denied this claim and resisted every US attempt to buy the territory. Now, the US saw its opportunity, and, in 1843, President John Tyler (served 1841-1845) quietly opened talks to annex Texas.

While some Texians preferred to remain independent, others saw the benefit of joining the United States. The idea also gained momentum in the US where Southern Democrats, who wished to expand the institution of slavery, relished the idea of adding another 'slave state' to the Union, while other Americans believed Texas' annexation would be a huge step toward the 'Manifest Destiny' of their nation to spread its influence across the continent. After some hiccups, the US Congress passed a resolution offering annexation to Texas in February 1845 – Texas accepted and, in December, became the 28th state. This, of course, was seen as a hostile act by Mexico, who had yet to recognize Texas' independence, let alone its annexation to the US. Nor did Mexico agree with Texas' assertion that the Rio Grande constituted its southern boundary; historically, the border of Mexican Texas had ended at the Nueces River, 150 miles (240 km) north of the line Texas now claimed. But the newly elected US president, James K. Polk (1795-1849), did not care what Mexico thought – "I regard the question of annexation as belonging exclusively to the United States and Texas," he proclaimed in his inaugural address (quoted in Howe, 733).

A Democrat in the mold of Andrew Jackson (1767-1845), Polk had run on a platform of expansionism. Promising to guide the US to its 'Manifest Destiny' on the coasts of the Pacific, he was interested not only in acquiring Texas but also New Mexico and California. In November 1845, he dispatched a secret representative, John Slidell, to Mexico City with an offer to buy the Rio Grande border, New Mexico, and Alta California, all for $25 million. Once Slidell's purpose became known, however, his very presence in Mexico City was perceived as an insult. Negotiations were further hampered by the instability of the Mexican government; in 1846 alone, the Mexican presidency exchanged hands four times. Frustrated that he was getting nowhere with the negotiations, Slidell reported back to Washington that "a war will probably be the best mode of settling our affairs with Mexico" (quoted in Howe, 737). But Polk was way ahead of him – having anticipated that the negotiations would fail, he had spent the last few months positioning his armies to provoke a war with Mexico and seize the lands he desired by force.

Read More

⇒ Mexican-American War

[whencyclopedia]

When 185 Texans Faced 2,000 Soldiers

The Battle of the Alamo (March 6, 1836) wasn't just a military defeat—it was a turning point that galvanized Texas toward independence. For thirteen brutal days, a small band of defenders held off a massive Mexican Army, and their last stand became one of history's most legendary last stands.

The Siege and Battle

Between 185 and 250 Texian defenders occupied the Alamo, a former mission in San Antonio. They faced over 2,000 Mexican soldiers led by President and General Antonio López de Santa Anna. For twelve days, the defenders endured constant bombardment, repelling two major assaults. But on the morning of March 6, a third assault breached the fort. Under Santa Anna's orders, no prisoners were taken—all surviving defenders were executed.

Key Facts

The siege lasted 13 days (February 23 to March 6, 1836)

Defender count: 185–250 Texians

Mexican Army: over 2,000 soldiers

All defenders were killed; no survivors were spared

The battle became legendary despite being a tactical defeat

It occurred during the Texas Revolution against Mexican rule

Historical Context

The Alamo siege took place during the Texas Revolution, when American settlers and Texians rebelled against Mexican control. Santa Anna's brutal suppression of the Alamo was meant to crush the rebellion, but it had the opposite effect—it inspired Texians to fight harder for independence.

Historical Significance

The Alamo's failure paradoxically became a triumph for the Texas cause. The defenders' sacrifice and refusal to surrender, even facing impossible odds, became a rallying cry that energized the independence movement. Just weeks later, Texians defeated Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto, securing Texas independence. The Alamo transformed from a military defeat into a symbol of resistance and determination that still resonates today.

Learn More: Siege of the Alamo: The "small affair" That Won Texas Independence

[whencyclopedia]

Texas Revolution: The State that Became a Country that Became a State

The Texas Revolution (Texas War of Independence, 1835 to 1836) was a conflict between the Anglo and Tejano residents of the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas (Texas) and the Mexican government over state and individual rights. The rebellion in Coahuila y Tejas was only one of many in what was known as the Mexican Federalist War (1835 to 1848), a series of revolts in Mexico against the Centralist Republic, which, until 1836, was led by Antonio López de Santa Anna (1794 to 1876), who had overthrown the more popular Federalist Republic, but it became the most significant in USA-Mexico relations because it led to the establishment of the Republic of Texas in 1836, its annexation by the United States in 1845 as the 28th state of the Union, and the resultant Mexican-American War of 1846 to 1848.

Background

The region of Mexico was taken as a colony of Spain in the 16th century and held until the Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821). After winning independence, however, Mexico's economy was in ruins, and it struggled to form a working government. The northern territory of Coahuila y Tejas faced constant threats from Apache and Comanche raids and, consequently, was sparsely populated. In an effort to revive the economy and win popular support for the government, Anglo-Americans were invited to settle in the region.

These new arrivals, it was thought, would provide a buffer between Mexican citizens to the south and the Native Americans to the north. They would also produce crops that would help the economy through sales and taxes. As Mexico was a Spanish-speaking, Catholic country, the only conditions the Anglo-Americans had to meet were to convert to Catholicism and learn Spanish when becoming Mexican citizens; these were ignored by the settlers, who were primarily English-speaking Protestants. As many came from the Southern states of the USA, they were also slaveowners, bringing along their slaves, whom they considered property like their tables and chairs.

The Anglo-Americans quickly came to outnumber the Tejanos of the region, Mexicans born in the territory, and, as more and more immigrants arrived, so did their slaves. The influx was encouraged by the policy of the Mexican government, which conferred upon certain people the title of Empresario – someone whose sole responsibility was to bring more settlers from the USA to Coahuila y Tejas – and the most successful of these was Stephen F. Austin (1793 to 1836), whose father, Moses Austin, had performed the same service.

By 1829, the Mexican government realized that Coahuila y Tejas was becoming overrun by Anglo-Americans who had refused to learn Spanish or convert to Catholicism and, further, were importing more slaves and taking jobs away from the Tejanos in the region. In 1829, Mexico abolished slavery, and the Anglo-Americans in Coahuila y Tejas threatened to revolt. Concessions were made, but in 1830, President Anastasio Bustamante (1780 to 1853) issued the Laws of April 6, 1830, rescinding the concessions, banning further immigration from the USA, and raising taxes in the region. Coahuila y Tejas was far from the Mexican capital, however, and the Laws could not be enforced. The Anglo-Americans continued on as they had before, invited friends and family to come, and imported more slaves. By 1834, there were approximately 30,000 Anglo-Americans living in the region.

In 1832, General Antonio López de Santa Anna overthrew Bustamante and replaced him with Valentín Gómez Farías (1781 to 1858). Farías addressed the problems in the north by allowing Anglo-Americans to keep their slaves, lowering taxes, and giving the region a greater voice in representation in the Federalist Republic of Mexico.

In 1834, Santa Anna overthrew Farías, became president, and established the Centralist Republic of Mexico. Scholar John S. D. Eisenhower writes:

The next year, Santa Anna went even further, replacing the established Constitution of 1824 with the Seven Laws, which (a) abolished the existing states of Mexico in favor of administrative "departments"; (b) set the term of the president at eight years; and (c) limited the franchise to a privileged few. To the average Mexican, these measures hardly mattered, but they did matter to the inhabitants of previously self-governing areas far from Mexico City. Foremost among such citizens were the twenty thousand Americans who had moved into Texas during the preceding few years. Those people cared very much.

(12)

In 1832, the Anahuac Disturbances – skirmishes between Anglo-Americans and Mexican authorities – heralded more serious conflict ahead. By April 1835, unrest in Coahuila y Tejas was even more evident. Mexican military officials in the region sent messages to Mexico City warning of a potential uprising and requesting reinforcements. In September 1835, Santa Anna sent his brother-in-law, General Martín Perfecto de Cos (1800-1854), toward Coahuila y Tejas to take care of the problem.

Read More

⇒ Texas Revolution: The State that Became a Country that Became a State

[whencyclopedia]

The Death of David "Davy" Crockett at the Alamo: José Enrique de la Peña's Account of the Surrender

The death of David "Davy" Crockett at the Battle of the Alamo (6 March 1836) has been understood as a heroic last stand at least since 1880 when Texan historian Reuben M. Potter dismissed eyewitness accounts that Crockett had surrendered as "calumny against the hero", insisting that Crockett fought to the end (Kilgore, 27).

Other historians then followed Potter's lead, and the prevailing image of Crockett's death became the one that concludes Disney Studio's Davy Crockett miniseries (1954-1955) in which Crockett, surrounded by enemy troops, the last man standing at the Alamo, swings his rifle valiantly at his attackers as the screen fades to black.

Potter was trying to establish a narrative for the State of Texas, and the reports of Crockett surrendering, or being taken captive and then executed, did not fit his vision. Reports of Alamo defenders surrendering, however, were circulating as early as 11 March 1836, less than a week after the battle, and the news that Crockett had been one of these was being repeated by 27 March 1836.

Potter's vision prevailed in the United States, however, until the 1970s when the diary of Colonel José Enrique de la Peña, published in Spanish in Mexico in 1955, was translated to English in 1975 by Carmen Perry and published by Texas A&M University Press under the title, With Santa Anna in Texas: A Personal Narrative of the Revolution. The book aroused a storm of controversy over one passage in which Peña, a participant in the assault on the Alamo, describes the capture and execution of David Crockett.

Early Evidence of Surrender

The 13-day siege of the Alamo ended the morning of 6 March 1836 when the Mexican forces under President/General Antonio López de Santa Anna stormed the fort and, under orders to take no prisoners, massacred the garrison. Lt. Colonel William Barret Travis, commanding the Alamo, had sent out pleas for reinforcements regularly since the siege began – but no help came except for 32 volunteers from Gonzales.

The Alamo was impossible to defend with the few men under Travis' command – usually given as 185/187 to 250 – holding against thousands of well-equipped Mexican troops, and Travis made this clear in his letters. General Sam Houston, however, dismissed his reports as exaggerations. Houston did not believe Santa Anna could have possibly arrived in Texas as early as 23 February and claimed Travis was only posturing in an attempt to win support and take Houston's place as General of the Regular Army.

On 11 March, two Tejanos from San Antonio de Béxar – Andrés Barcena and Anselmo Vergara – appeared at Gonzales, where Houston was organizing his troops, to report that the Alamo had fallen. Houston accused them of being spies who had fabricated the report and had them arrested. Privately, however, he was concerned that the reports could be true and sent a letter that evening to Colonel James W. Fannin at Goliad, saying so. In his letter, he included the first mention in print of Alamo defenders surrendering:

After the fort was carried, seven men surrendered and called for Santa Anna and quarter…They were murdered by his order.

(Kilgore, 17)

Scholar Dan Kilgore continues:

Travelers from Texas arriving in New Orleans on March 27, 1836, three weeks after the assault, brought the first news of the battle. The New Orleans Post-Union reported that "Crockett and others had tried to surrender but were told there was no mercy for them." Northern newspapers reprinted this news, which was probably the first word received throughout the United States of the fall of the Alamo and of the death of David Crockett.

(17-18)

Ramon Martinez Caro, Santa Anna's personal secretary, recorded the surrender of "five men" directly after the battle. Although the number of men differs from the account Houston heard, the details are similar to the report given by Barcena and Vergara: General Castrillon found survivors after the Alamo, promised them his protection, and brought them to Santa Anna, who ordered them to be executed.

These are not the only accounts in circulation in 1836, as other officers present on the morning of 6 March 1836 gave similar reports, some of them in the days following the Battle of San Jacinto (21 April 1836) and others later on. These accounts were only suppressed because they did not fit the national narrative that required heroic deaths for all the Alamo defenders who, following Travis' lead in his famous "Victory or Death" letter, were said to have determined they would "never surrender or retreat."

Read More

⇒ The Death of David "Davy" Crockett at the Alamo: José Enrique de la Peña's Account of the Surrender