The Last Of The Romans

This blog is dedicated to the Roman Republic, the Roman Empire and it’s successor states.

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Underrated Romans of History: Giovanni Giustiniani Longo 1418-1453

Giovanni Giustiniani Longo was born in the Italian City of Genoa in the year 1418 and was the last general of the Roman Empire. He was born to one of the most prominent families in Genoa and was a prominent figure in the 1453 fall of Constantinople to the forces of the Ottoman Empire.

Though very little is known about the early life of Giovanni, it is known that he led a force of 700 soldiers from both Genoa and Greece to aid in the defence of the Roman Capital. Giovanni proved to be a talented commander and a charismatic man who the defenders eagerly followed.

The last Roman Emperor, Constantine XI, placed Giovanni in command of the Roman Land defences and Giovanni placed an importance on repairing the damaged caused to the land walls by the Ottoman Cannons. He was also key on ensuring the Venetians, Genoese and Greek defenders did not quarrel.

On May 29, 1453, Giovanni was wounded defending the walls - some sources say it was a cannon that wounded him, others say it was a cross bow bolt. But what is agreed that Giovanni was injured and was carried from the walls. His fall caused the defenders of the city to lose heart and when the Ottomans renewed their attack, the city began to fall.

Constantine threw himself into the fight and it is said he died defending one of the city gates. With the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans so fell the Roman Empire, an empire which had stood for over 1500 years.

The reason for Giovanni being one of the most underrated Roman commanders is that he was born, lived and died in a period where history tells us Rome no longer stood as an Empire, but instead the Byzantine Empire stood instead. Referring to the Empire as Byzantine is a fairly modern term by all accounts and the people who lived within the Byzantine Empire called themselves Roman. Though Giovanni was unable to successfully defend Constantinople from the relentless waves of Ottoman attacks, his strategy ensured the city held out for far longer than anyone had thought possible.

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The Kingdom of Rome - Part 3 From Monarchy to Republic

While Rome was initially a monarchy she would also at times in her history be a Republic and an Empire. The shortest of these three would be the monarchy which would last from her founding to 510BC.

In 510BC an event which we will call the ‘Rape of Lucretia’ occurred. Of this event there are two stories of how the event occurred. Both versions of the tale have Sextus Tarquinius, the son of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (The Seventh King of Rome), raping Lucretia, the wife of  Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus and the daughter of the prefect of Rome Spurius Lucretius. What differs in each version is the set of events leading up to the deed. One account of the event tells us that while his father led a military campaign against the Rutuli, Sextus was sent on a military errand, though what that errand was is lost to time, to Collatia. In Collatia it is said he was entertained at the home of Collatinus. Lucretia, ensured that Sextus was treated with all the respect that his rank pertained.

Another story has Sextus and Lucius at a wine party and debating the virtues of wives when Lucius volunteered to settle the debate by heading to his home to check up on Lucretia and what she was doing. She was found to be weaving with her maids. The party was said to have awarded her the palm of victory and returned to camp.

Where the accounts do not differ is in the events that followed; it is said that Sextus made his way into her bed chamber, sneaking past the slaves that slept outside her door. She quickly awakened and he offered her two choices; she would submit to his sexual advances and become his future wife and queen or he would kill her and one of the male slaves and claim they were committing adultery. She submitted to his advances.

The next day, Lucretia travelled to her fathers house in Rome dressed all in black and cast herself at his feet and hugged his legs. She wept and her father demanded she explain herself. She would demanded the summoning of witnesses and after they arrived, she would disclose the events of the rape and demand vengeance. A plea that could not be ignored and upon drawing a concealed dagger, Lucretia would kill herself due to the shame of what had occurred. She would die in her fathers arms. A different telling of this event had Lucretia summoning people to her rather than heading for Rome, but the event of her telling her tale and suicide do not differ.

One of the men present, Lucius Junius Brutus - one of Romes’ leading citizens and the grandson of Romes’ fifth king, would spear head the vengeance for Lucretia and would call upon the people of Rome to rise up against the tyrannical kings of the city. The people, so spurred on by both Brutus and the tale of Lucretia, would vote for the expulsion of the Kings of Rome.  A Republican system with two Consuls at its head was swiftly decided to be Romes’ new form of Government. Brutus and, Lucretias’ husband, Lucius would be the first consuls of the new Roman Republic.

Leaving Lucius in charge in Rome, Brutus rode for the Roman Camp at Ardea with armed men to arrest the King, but by then the King had fled. The army greeted Brutus like a hero and the King and his family fled into exile.

The Roman Republic would last until the end of the civil war between Octavian and Mark Anthony when it would be replaced by the Roman Empire.

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Underrated Romans of History: Odenathus 220-267

Septimius Udhayna, Latinised as Odenathus, in the year 220AD in the city of Palmyra. Palmyra was one of the cities that made up the Syria Phoenice province of the Roman Empire. Odenathus was born shortly before the period known as the ‘Crisis of the Third Century‘. He was born to a noble family but not one of Royal blood as the City was ruled by a council and not a Royal family.

The rise of the aggressive Sassanid Empire and the fall of the Parthian Empire resulted in increased Persian raids. These raids would affect Palmyrene income as the cities primary source of income was through trade caravans. This as well as the weakening of the Roman Empire was, possibly, one of the main reasons behind the decision by the Palmyra Council to elect a Ras (Lord) to lead a strengthened army in the field.

The earliest known mention of Odenathus as Ras is in an inscription from 251AD. There is also mention of Odenathus as a Roman Senator, but when his ascension to the Senatorial Class happened is unknown. It is possible that this occurred after his appointment to the rank of Ras, but it is also possible that both events occurred at the same time. Odenathus didn’t waste any time and bolstered the Palmyrene army by recruiting Desert Nomads and increasing the number of armoured heavy cavalry in the Army.

The Sassanids would cross the Euphrates in 252AD under the leadership of King of Kings Shapur the First. The Persians widely raided Roman Lands and destroyed many Palmyrene trade colonies on the Euphrates. It is said that Odenathus attempted to negotiate with Shapur, but it is said that these attempts were rejected and gifts Odenathus had tried to give to the Persians were thrown in the river.

By 258AD, at the latest, Odenathus was appointed as Governor of Syria Phoenice; this would make him the highest authority in the province and the commander of all Roman forces in the province. Starting not long after his appointment as Governor, Odenathus would begin to strengthen his position and political standing. In 260AD by the time of the battle of Edessa, Odenathus held the power, rank and standing to pacify the chaos that would grip the Roman East.

The battle of Edessa would prove to be a disastrous for the Roman Empire as the Emperor Valerian and his entire army of between 60,000 and 70,000 men were defeated and Valerian was captured. This defeat would be catastrophic for the Empire.

Odenathus was declared King of Palmyra almost as soon as news reached the city. Odenathus would have been faced with a number of choices at this point; he could have chosen to declare Palmyrene independence and ruled as King, he could have sided with the Sassanids and he could have thrown his lot in with the Rebellion of Fulvius Macrianus and his sons. But instead Odenathus chose to remain loyal to Valerians son and successor Gallienus. When he declared his loyalty to the current Emperor is unknown, but it is widely believed to be after the defeat of Macrianus in the Balkans.

In the summer of 260AD, Odenathus marched North to attack the Sassanid invaders. He fell upon them just west of the Euphrates and defeated the Persian forces - expelling the King of Kings Shapur from Syria. After news of the defeat of Fulvius Macrianus reached Odenathus, the King marched on Emessa where the imperial pretenders two remaining sons were. The locals killed Quietus and Balista was captured and executed by Odenathus

The defeat of the usurpers left Odenathus as by far the most powerful man in the East and while he remained loyal to the Emperor, true power in the region belonged with Palmyra and Odenathus. There is a source which claims that Odenathus was proclaimed Augustus (co-emperor) following his defeat of the Persians, but this source is widely discredited.

In the spring of 262AD, Odenathus invaded Sassanid Lands and crossed the Euphrates. He marched south towards the Sassanid capital at Ctesiphon, he liberated the Roman province of Mesopotamia on his way and defeated many Persian Garrisons and by late 262AD, he had besieged the Sassanid Capital.

Though he would be unsuccessful in his siege (The logistics of fighting in enemy territory was too much to over come) and he would return to Roman Lands laded with the spoils of war (Gold and Prisoners). In 263AD he would send the prisoners to Rome and be awarded a triumph by the Emperor.

Also in 263AD after returning to Palmyra, Odenathus would declare himself King of Kings of the East and crown his son as Co-King. This declaration was a direct insult upon Shapur, but not to Gallienus. While Odenathus had taken this new title, he did not show any kind of disloyalty to the Emperor and submitted to the Emperors authority.

In 266AD, Odenathus would again invade Persia and reach the Sassanid Capital, but he would again be forced to abandon his siege and march north to deal with invaders striking at Anatolia (Modern Turkey). These raiders were most likely either Scythian or Gothic in origin, but by the time Odenathus arrived in Anatolia, they would have already left.

In 267AD possibly at the conclusion or at the tail end of the Anatolian campaign, Odenathus and his son Hairan would be assassinated. Who struck at the King and who planned the assassination is something lost to history, but there are many theories from Gallienus to Shapur being involved and to his Second Wife Zenobia being the one responsible, but it is likely we will never know the truth about the death of Odenathus.

Odenathus was succeeded as King of Kings of the East and King of Palmyra by his ten-year old son Vaballathus, though true power would lie with Queen Regent Zenobia. Zenobia would later proclaim Palmyra independent of Rome in one of the key moments of the Third Century Crisis.

Overall, Odenathus proved a loyal man to his Emperor against what was normality for powerful Roman Generals of the time and he wold successfully limit Sassanid Power in the East as well as reestablishing Roman control over the area. The rise in power of Palmyra and the eventual establishment of Zenobias’ Palmyrene Kingdom was only possible due to the hard work and skill of Odenathus.

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The Kingdom of Rome Part 2: The Roman Army in the Regal Period (753BC-509BC)

The Roman Army as a concept was something that didn’t truly exist until 550 BC. Before 550, the Roman Army consisted of a series of clan based warbands which couldn’t have been further away from the Legionary system and professional war machine that the Roman Army would become. These warbands often operated as small raiding forces in times of peace and would unite as a singular force in periods of serious external threats to the state.

One of the main differences between the Regal Roman Army and the Imperial Army of later centuries is that the Regal Roman Army was made up of warriors where as the Imperial Roman Army consisted of soldiers. You might be asking what the difference is? Soldier implies that the individual is part of an organised military with a skilled method of fighting usually in formation. Warriors, while often skilled in the methods of war, rarely fight as part of a formation and succeed more on their own personal skill than the use of good tactics. While the men of the Regal Roman Warbands were no doubt brave, they were not professional soldiers as their descendants would become. Members of Roman Warbands would usually be lightly armoured and quick moving. The emphasis would be on lightening raids; these lightly to unarmoured Romans were ideally suited to this type of raids.

However, in the late regal era (550-509BC) the Roman Warbands would become more organised and begin to morph towards being soldiers. The most critical changes of this period were the adoption of Greek Style Equipment in the Hoplite fashion. This change was most likely adopted from the Greek Colonies in southern Italy. The introduction of heavier armour and better equipment would begin to form the wealth divide of the early Roman army. Those citizens that could afford to purchase armour and better weapons would serve as Hoplites and those that couldn’t afford to would continue to serve as lightly armoured light infantry.

During the reign of Romes’ sixth king Servius Tullius, the King reformed the Roman Army in what became known as ‘The Servian Constitution of the Roman Army’. These reform give us a clear view of the structure of the Roman Army in the middle of the 6th Century.

The Equites: These men were the wealthiest citizens and were grouped into 18 centuries. These men served as the armies cavalry and were expected to supply their own horses.

The First Class: This class was made up of 80 centuries of spearmen fully armed with helmet, cuirass, greaves and a round shield. The first class were clearly a Greek Style Phalanx.

The Second Class: This class was divided into 20 centuries of spearmen armed with helmet, greaves and the Italian shield (The Scutum).

The Third Class: This class was also made up of 20 centuries of spearmen but were only armed with a helmet and Italian shield.

The Fourth Class: This class was also made up of 20 centuries but they were only armed with a spear and shield.

The Fifth Class: This class were armed with slings and javelins and were made up of between 20-30 Centuries.

While the 1st Class were armed and fought in the Greek manner, the other four Classes armed in the Italian style are support troops. This system is similar to the Legions and Auxiliaries of the Imperial Roman Army.

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The Kingdom of Rome Part 1

The Foundation of Rome - The Kingdom of Rome

Legend and myth would have us believe that the city of Rome was founded by either Romulus and Remus or the survivors from the siege of Troy. While these myths are very well know in today’s society to anyone with a passing interest in history, they are completely unsupported by any historical evidence yet to be discovered.

The legend of Romulus and Remus concerns two brothers that were abandoned as babies because it had been prophesised that the two brothers would overthrow their uncle Amilius. It is said that Amilius ordered the two babies to be thrown into the Tiber river, but the two servants tasked with the deed left the babies in the wild instead. Legend then claims that a she-wolf raised the two boys. Upon ascending to adulthood the two brothers would fulfil the prophecy and successfully overthrow their uncle. From this point the brothers would, according to the legend, decide to found a city but would fallout over either the naming of this new city or the location to build this new city. Romulus would kill Remus and the city would be named Rome after the victorious brother.

Romulus would go onto rule Rome for nearly forty years and in those thirty seven years he would oversee the strengthening of the Kingdom of Rome. One of the most infamous and defining events regarding the early days of the Kingdom of Rome would be the ‘Rape of the Sabine Women’.

‘The Rape of the Sabine Women’ is an event which would spark war in Ancient Italy. Rome had been founded and populated by this point and the populace had been divided into three tribes by Romulus (The Ramnes, the Titenses and the Luceres). From the top families of each tribe, Romulus would form the hundred strong senate. To encourage the growth of his new city, Romulus would first outlaw infanticide and make Rome an asylum where both freemen and slaves could claim protection.

Though the population of Rome swiftly swelled with colonists, most of these colonists were young, unmarried men. Thus in the early days of Roman History, the number of men in the city vastly outnumbered the number of women. Romulus knew that without women that the city would swiftly die. Though Romulus and the Senate would try and negotiate with neighbouring settlements to allow intermarrying between them and the Romans, these settlements would refuse. This refusal would lead to the ‘Rape of the Sabine Women’.

Following the refusal of what they saw as a reasonable request, the Roman Senate and Romulus began to plot to take Sabine Women for their own. They held a large festival in honour of the sea god Neptune and invited the neighbouring Sabines. According to the historian Livy, the festival attracted attendants from other towns as well as the Sabine, but it is not clear whether any women were taken from these other attendants or just the Sabine.

With the festival in full swing, Romulus gave a signal and the Roman men suddenly grabbed the Sabine women and made off with them while other Romans fought off the Sabine men.

While the event itself is referred to as the ‘Rape of the Sabine Women’, according to Livy, no actual sexual assault took place. What is suggested is a gradual seduction of these women by Romulus by promising them free choice as well as rights that they didn’t have with the Sabines.

The events that follow we will refer to as the ‘Rome - Sabine War’, but in actuality it is a conflict that history hasn’t named. The conflict encompassed more than just the Romans and the Sabines as a number of the nearby tribes (Ones who had attended and witnessed the abductions) would attack Rome.

Tribes known as the Caeninenses and the Antemnates were the first to enter Roman territory. The Romans, led by Romulus, defeated first the Caeninenses and then the Antemnates in battle before capturing their towns. A third tribe the Crustumini would start a war with Rome, but the same fate would befall them as that which had befallen the Caeninenses and the Antemnates.

Romulus would waste no time in ensuring that Roman colonists set up in these towns and some of the natives would even migrate to Rome.

The Sabines would finally declare war on the Romans and would be led by their King against the Romans, and the Sabines even came very close to conquering the city and perhaps changing the course of human history forever, but during the final battle between the two sides (The Battle of Lacus Curtius) the Sabine Women suddenly rushed the battlefield and put themselves between both armies. They implored both sides to stop the fighting and accept each other as family as the Sabine women had done. Ashamed, Romulus and Tatius ended the fighting between their people.

Following the end of the Roman - Sabine War, the Romans and the Sabine would become one people with Titus and Romulus sharing rule of Rome.