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Internet Protocol

By the term protocol, we mean the set of rules or standards designed to enable computers to be connected with one another.

The most commonly used internet protocol are:

Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP is an industry-standard protocol suite for Wide Area Networks (WANs) developed in the 1970s and 1980s by the US Department of Defence (DOD). It is a routable protocol that is suitable for connecting dissimilar system in Heterogeneous Networks. It is the protocol of the worldwide network known as the Internet. At that time, it was called ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Administration Network).

The four DOD Model layers as shown in the figure and the OSI model layer correspond to as follows:

The network access layers to the physical and data link layers of the OSI model.

The internet layer corresponds to the OSI network layer.

Host-to-host layer corresponds roughly to the OSI transport layer.

The application layer corresponds to the OSI session, presentation and application layers.

E-mail Addresses

An e-mail program enables us to send, receive and manage our messages. However, there are few parameters you must be clear about before you start sending and receiving e-mail messages. Email addresses commonly take this form: username@hostname.

OSI Model

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection model. The OSI model was designed by the International Standard Organisation (ISO). It is a seven layer model.

These layers are:

Physical Layer:- This layer is responsible for the physical connection between two nodes. This layer transfers the bits stream in the form of signals.

Data Link Layer:- This layer organized the data in the form of packets. These packets contain header and trailer part. Various information related to data transmission is stored in header and trailer like source address, destination address, packet numbers etc. Header, trailer, and data packets are combine known as a frame.

Network Layer:- This is the third layer of OSI model and responsible for the routing of packets. It has various protocols for shortest and fastest routing of packets like internet protocol, OSPF etc.

Transport Layer:- This is the fourth layer of OSI model. It receives the data from the network layer and split this data as requires and passes this data to the session layer. It also ensures that all the PCs arrive at the other end correctly.

Session Layer:- This layer is the network dialog controller. It was designed to establish, maintain, and synchronized the interaction between the communicating systems.

Presentation Layer:- The presentation layer was designed to handle the syntax and semantics of the information exchange between the two systems. It was designed for data translation, encryption, decryption and compression.

Application Layer:- Top layer of the OSI model and works as an interface between the user and the network. All the user interactive application are available on this layer like e-mail, file transfer etc. Various protocols available on this layer are FTP, HTTP, SMTP, etc.

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Internet:

The Internet is an interconnection between several computers of different types belonging to various network across the world. It is a network of networks. Millions of people use the internet to search and share the information and ideas etc.

The Internet is a computer-based worldwide information network. It is the network of computers connected with one another all over the world.

Characteristics of Internet

A complex network

Disorganized

A decentralized system

Composed of billions of files

Widely used

International in scope

Dynamic

Expanding Exponentially

Elements of the Internet

Client PC

Client PCs are the computers that request information from servers. It typically maintains intermitted (part-time) connections. If your personal computer has access to the internet, it is categorized as a client computer.

Server Computer

A server is a computer that holds the files for one or more websites. These are relatively powerful computers with a persistent (full-time) internet connection and can provide data to multiple client computers simultaneously.

Networks

Networks are composed of one or more server computer and multiple client PCs.

Nodes

“Node” is a generic term used to describe a client, server, or network.

Uniform Resource Locators (URL)

Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) are the unique addresses of Internet resources. A URL is divided into four parts:

Transfer protocol

Server name

Directory path

File Name

Internet Protocol

IP is a method by which data is sent from one computer to another over the network. Each computer that is connected to the internet has at least one IP address which uniquely identifies the computer from other computers.

Coding:- <html> <head> <title> A Simple HTML Program </title> </head> <body> <h1> HTML is very easy to learn. </h1> <p> Welcome to the world of HTML. </p> <p> This is the first paragraph however short it is still a paragraph. </p> <p> And this is the second paragraph. </p> </body> </html>

Elements of the web

Web Browser

A web browser is a program that resides on your pc and can display text images and multimedia data found on different web pages. A web browser is a program that helps the user to navigate the world wide web.

Basic Internet Terminologies

Modem:- A modem is a computer peripheral that allows you to connect and communicate with other computers via telephone lines. When digital data are to be sent over telephone lines, the digital signals must be converted to analog form. The technique by which a digital signal is converted to its analog form is known as modulation. The reverse process, ie, the conversion of digital data to analog form and vice-versa is carried out by the modem.

Internet Protocol:- A protocol is a set of rules for exchanging information. On the internet, IP is responsible for the addressing and sending of data from one computer to another.

Internet Service Provider (ISP):- ISP is a company that provides access to the internet.

Netiquette:- Netiquette is the conventional rules for correct behavior on the internet.

Applications of Internet

To exchange electronic mail with friends.

To participate in group discussion on topics of interest through public newsgroups.

Finding educational tools, universities around the world, bookstores, and libraries for sharing online information.

Students can talk to their teachers and receive instruction through video conferencing.

The internet has become the first global venue for publishing information.

Commerce on the Internet

Commerce on the internet means buying and selling items on the internet. It may be a way of enabling business over the internet. Many companies set up their websites providing details of their products and services. Users can purchase items through credit cards.

Types of e-commerce available on the internet

1. Business-to-Business:-

It means a company selling or buying products from other companies.

2. Business-to-Customer:-

It means a company establishes a website on the internet. It provides information about products and services on the site. A customer can order products or get any other information from the site.

3. Digital Middleman:-

It means that a company provides information about several other companies on a website. The company gathers data from companies which provide the same type of products, say cars, computer hardware, etc. A commission is then charged for each transaction.

Cyber Crime

Any criminal activity that uses a computer either as an instrument, target or a means for perpetuating further. Crimes come within the ambit of “Cyber Crime”.

The manner of Committing Cyber Crime

Unauthorized access to the computer system or network

Theft of information contained in the electronic form.

E-mail bombing.

Data diddling.

Salami Attacks.

Virus or Worms attacks.

Trojan attacks.

Internet time thefts.

Prevention of Cyber Crimes

To prevent cyberstalking, avoid disclosing any information pertaining to oneself.

Always avoid sending any photograph online, particularly to strangers and chat friends.

Always use the latest and updated anti-virus software to guard against virus attacks.

It keeps backup volumes so that one may not suffer data loss in case of virus contamination.

Use of firewalls may be beneficial.

Coding for Quote Element:- <html> <head> <title> A simple Inline Element </title> </head> <body> <h1> A new HTML 4.0 Element. </h1> <p> Churchil said, <Q> "we have chosen same and will get, "</Q> but he was not talking about 1066. </p> </body> </html>

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Number System:

The number system is defined with a different format like decimal octal binary etc. The system uses the binary system to manage the user instruction and generate output.

1. Positional Number System:

The numeric value manages the base of positional value. The position of a digit indicates the significance to be attached to that digit. This system has radix base or base to control the data and its processing.

2. Binary Number System:

It is a number system that represents only 0 or 1 and radix is 2.

3. Decimal Number System:

It is a number system that represents 0 to 9 and the radix or base is 10.

4. Octal Number System:

It is a number system that is represented between 0 to 7 and radix is 8.

5. Hexadecimal Number System:

It is a number system that represents between 0 to 9 and A, B, C, D, E, F respectively and radix is 16.

Data:

The system uses binary information for processing the data and instruction. The user uses a different type of symbols, numeric value, character, and alphanumeric as input. But the system converts into binary format for data processing. The numbers are defined by its base value that helps to a system for conversion.

Conversion Of Number System:

1. Decimal To Binary Conversion:

In this conversion method, we divide a number by 2 till the quotient is 0. We use remainder value in reverse format for the binary number.

2. Decimal To Octal Conversion:

In this conversion method, we divide a number by 8 till the quotient is 0. We use remainder value in reverse format in an octal number.

3. Decimal To Hexadecimal Conversion:

Divide the decimal number by 16. Treat the division as an integer division.

Write down the remainder (in hexadecimal).

Divide the result again by 16. Treat the division as an integer division.

Repeat step 2 and 3 until a result is 0.

The hex value is the digit sequence of the remainders from the last to first.

4. Binary To Decimal Conversion:

Write down the binary number.

List the powers of two from right to left.

Write the digits of the binary number below their corresponding powers.

Connect the digits in the binary number with their corresponding powers.

Write down the final value of each power of two.

Add the final values.

Write the answer along with its base subscript.

5. Binary To Octal Conversion:

In this conversion method, we create the group of 3 digits of binary value from the right or find out its decimal value of each group and combined together octal.

6. Octal To Decimal Conversion:

In this conversion method, we use 8^0, 8^1,8^2 and 8^n than multiply with each digit of the octal number from the right side and find the sum of all digit after processing for decimal value.

7. Octal To Binary Conversion:

In this conversion, we find out binary of each digit from octal & represent into 3 bit. Then combine together for binary.

8. Hexadecimal To Decimal Conversion:

In this conversion method, we use 16^0, 16^1, 16^2 and 16^n than multiply with each digit of the hexadecimal number from the right side and find some of all digit after processing for decimal value.

9. Hexadecimal To Binary Conversion:

In this conversion method, we can find out binary of each digit from hexadecimal and represent into 4 bit. Then combine together for binary.

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