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Chemtrails: What's the truth behind the conspiracy theory?

The word "chemtrails" has trended on sunny mornings this summer - but what's the truth behind the conspiracy theory?

Look up at a clear blue sky, and you might see puffy white trails behind airplanes.

They are made up mostly of water and are called contrails or vapor trails, but a growing number of people falsely believe they are evidence of something sinister going on.

Some think malign forces are spraying the population with dangerous chemicals - so-called chemtrails - for purposes that are neither entirely clear nor consistent.

A surge in conspiratorial thinking following the Covid pandemic, along with the summer travel season and clear skies, means the once-obscure chemtrails theory is now being promoted by major influencers.

What are contrails?

Contrails are formed when water vapor and fine soot particulates from burning jet fuel freeze into ice crystals. In low air humidity, the crystals dissipate. In higher humidity, they persist and end up creating visible vapor trails over large areas of the sky.

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Those humidity differences explain why some aircraft are seen producing vapor trails while others do not.

High humidity means that vapor trails can last for long periods and become thin layers of cirrus clouds, Met Office meteorologist Aidan McGivern told the BBC. Cirrus clouds are short, detached, and hair-like and are found at high altitudes. It is unlikely that any of these purported chemicals in the clouds would even reach ground level because they are at such high altitudes, he said.

One persistent belief among followers of the theory is that early morning chemtrails encourage greater cloud cover later in the day - but this can be explained by the natural process of convection. This is the result of the sun warming the ground, causing warm air to rise and condense into clouds later in the day, the Met Office says.

How did the conspiracy theory begin?

The idea that governments or shadowy forces are routinely spraying the planet with chemicals from scheduled passenger flights took hold in the 1990s.

Initially, believers claimed sprays containing a toxic metal, barium, were being used to either pacify or reduce populations.

But the idea evolved along the way, meaning today, there are several strands of the chemtrail theory.

In recent years, followers have expanded their accusations, claiming the contrails are being used to spread Covid-19, distribute vaccines, initiate "mind control," reduce the population or vaguely promote a "new world order."

False allegations have trended so frequently this year that fact-checking charity Full Fact has posted 10 debunks since April.

Chemtrail influencers are highly active on platforms such as Facebook and Telegram, where they discuss the day's alleged "spraying" and track aircraft. Some suggest putting a bowl of white vinegar outside, saying that this clears "chemtrails" skies.

Chemtrail social media groups also often contain anti-vaccine posts and promote climate change denialism, feeding off an increase in conspiracy thinking during the Covid-19 pandemic and the rise of the QAnon conspiracy theory during the Trump presidency.

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The phenomenon is international, with followers across the UK, Europe, Australia, and the Americas - in fact, anywhere under which commercial or military aircraft fly. And it is backed by a few celebrities and popular social media influencers.

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What are genome editing and CRISPR-Cas9?

Genome editing (also called gene editing) is a group of technologies that allow scientists to change an organism's DNA. These technologies allow genetic material to be added, removed, or altered at particular locations in the genome. Several approaches to genome editing have been developed. A well-known one is called CRISPR-Cas9, which is short for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9.

 The CRISPR-Cas9 system has generated a lot of excitement in the scientific community because it is faster, cheaper, more accurate, and more efficient than other genome editing methods.

CRISPR-Cas9 was adapted from a naturally occurring genome editing system that bacteria use as an immune defense. When infected with viruses, bacteria capture small pieces of the viruses' DNA and insert them into their own DNA in a particular pattern to create segments known as CRISPR arrays.

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The CRISPR arrays allow the bacteria to "remember" the viruses (or closely related ones). If the viruses attack again, the bacteria produce RNA segments from the CRISPR arrays that recognize and attach to specific regions of the viruses' DNA. The bacteria then use Cas9 or a similar enzyme to cut the DNA apart, which disables the virus.

Researchers adapted this immune defense system to edit DNA. They create a small piece of RNA with a short "guide" sequence that attaches (binds) to a specific target sequence in a cell's DNA, much like the RNA segments bacteria produce from the CRISPR array. This guide RNA also attaches to the Cas9 enzyme. When introduced into cells, the guide RNA recognizes the intended DNA sequence, and the Cas9 enzyme cuts the DNA at the targeted location, mirroring the process in bacteria. Although Cas9 is the enzyme that is used most often, other enzymes (for example Cpf1) can also be used.

Once the DNA is cut, researchers use the cell's own DNA repair machinery to add or delete pieces of genetic material or to make changes to the DNA by replacing an existing segment with a customized DNA sequence.

Genome editing is of great interest in the prevention and treatment of human diseases. Currently, genome editing is used in cells and animal models in research labs to understand diseases. Scientists are still working to determine whether this approach is safe and effective for use in people. It is being explored in research and clinical trials for a wide variety of diseases, including single-gene disorders such as cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, and sickle cell disease. It also holds promise for the treatment and prevention of more complex diseases, such as cancer, heart disease, mental illness, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection.

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Non-Fungible Token (NFT): What It Means and How It Works

What Is a Non-Fungible Token (NFT)?

Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are cryptographic assets on a blockchain with unique identification codes and metadata that distinguish them from each other.

Unlike cryptocurrencies, they cannot be traded or exchanged at equivalency. This differs from fungible tokens like cryptocurrencies, which are identical to each other and, therefore, can serve as a medium for commercial transactions.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

NFTs (non-fungible tokens) are unique cryptographic tokens that exist on a blockchain and cannot be replicated.

NFTs can represent real-world items like artwork and real estate.

"Tokenizing" these real-world tangible assets makes buying, selling, and trading them more efficient while reducing the probability of fraud.

NFTs can also function to represent individuals' identities, property rights, and more.

Collectors have sought NFTs as their value initially soared but has since moderated.

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Understanding Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs)

NFTs evolved from the ERC-721 standard. Developed by some of the same people responsible for the ERC-20 smart contract, ERC-721 defines the minimum interface—ownership details, security, and metadata—required for the exchange and distribution of gaming tokens. The ERC-1155 standard takes the concept further by reducing the transaction and storage costs required for NFTs and batching multiple types of non-fungible tokens into a single contract.

NFTs have the potential for several use cases. For example, they are an ideal vehicle to digitally represent physical assets like real estate and artwork. Because they are based on blockchains, NFTs can also work to remove intermediaries and connect artists with audiences or for identity management. NFTs can remove intermediaries, simplify transactions, and create new markets.

Much of the current market for NFTs is centered around collectibles, such as digital artwork, sports cards, and rarities. Perhaps the most hyped space is NBA Top Shot, a place to collect non-fungible tokenized NBA moments in digital card form. Some of these cards have sold for millions of dollars. Recently, Twitter's (TWTR) Jack Dorsey tweeted a link to a tokenized version of the first tweet ever, in which he wrote: "just setting up my twttr." The NFT version of the first-ever tweet sold for more than $2.9 million.

How NFTs Work

NFTs are created through a process called minting, in which the information of the NFT is published on a blockchain. At a high level, the minting process entails a new block being created, the information of the NFT being validated by a validator, and the information is recorded. This minting process often entails incorporating smart contracts that assign ownership and manage the transferability of the NFT.

As tokens are minted, they are assigned a unique identifier directly linked to one blockchain address. Each token has an owner, and the ownership information (i.e., the address in which the minted token resides) is publicly available. Even if 5,000 NFTs of the same exact item are minted (i.e., general admission tickets to a music festival), each of the tickets has a unique identifier and can be distinguished from one other.

Why NFTs Are Important

Non-fungible tokens are an evolution of the relatively simple concept of cryptocurrencies. Modern finance systems consist of sophisticated trading and loan systems for different asset types, ranging from real estate to lending contracts to artwork. By enabling digital representations of physical assets, NFTs are a step forward in the reinvention of this infrastructure.

To be sure, the idea of digital representations of physical assets is not novel, nor is the use of unique identification. However, when these concepts are combined with the benefits of a tamper-resistant blockchain of smart contracts, they become a potent force for change.

Perhaps, the most obvious benefit of NFTs is market efficiency.

The conversion of a physical asset into a digital one streamlines processes and removes intermediaries. NFTs representing digital or physical artwork on a blockchain removes the need for agents and allow artists to connect directly with their audiences. They can also improve business processes. For example, an NFT for a wine bottle will make it easier for different actors in a supply chain to interact with it and help track its provenance, production, and sale throughout the entire process. Consulting firm Ernst & Young has already developed such a solution for one of its clients.

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What Is an HVAC System and How Does It Work?

Most homeowners know what HVAC stands for (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning). Most also have a basic understanding of how the process works.

But very few people understand everything that goes into a full HVAC system.

This is understandable. How often do you have to think about your air conditioner, furnace, or another piece of HVAC equipment? Some have never had to purchase a new system or do more than schedule routine maintenance for their existing equipment.

When it comes time to make a new investment, though, whether that's building a new home or replacing existing equipment, it pays to know what's what.

If you're past that point and want to dig deeper into HVAC topics beyond this one, the Fire & Ice Learning Center is a great source for residential HVAC information. If you're still getting a grasp on the industry, though, this article will act as a primer. By the end, you'll have a solid understanding of HVAC equipment and processes so that the conversations you have with your HVAC contractor are more productive.

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What Is An HVAC System?

 

An HVAC system is equipment, technology, and processes that go into heating, cooling, and ventilating a commercial or residential property. Typical equipment included in this definition includes air conditioners, heat pumps, furnaces, air handlers, ductwork, ventilation lines, filters, and other air quality products.

HVAC Equipment – Heating

Most homes will have a furnace heating their home. Furnaces come in different types and can use different fuel sources, including the following:

Natural gas furnaces

Electric furnaces

Propane furnaces

Oil furnaces

Geothermal furnaces

 

Natural gas furnaces are the most common these days, although electric is more popular in some parts of the country where there are mild winters, the cost of gas is higher, or both.

Heating equipment generally includes a blower motor as well, which moves air throughout the home.

Most homes have what is known as a forced-air system. This is where the heat is distributed throughout the home through its ductwork by a blower.

HVAC Equipment - Ventilation

Ventilation includes any of the attached systems that help to process and move air throughout your home and the HVAC system. This typically includes the ductwork, floor, wall, and ceiling vents, and other ventilation shafts, including chimney flues or PVC ventilation for indoor HVAC equipment.

A home's ductwork is designed to house the air that is conditioned by the air conditioner or heated by the furnace. Inadequate ductwork can stifle a system's ability to heat or cool or may produce hot or cold spots where there isn't sufficient ductwork to carry the air.

Other ventilation, such as chimney flues and PVC vents, are often needed to vent excess heat from a system's furnace.

Vents also exist on the outdoor air conditioning unit and throughout the home to distribute air.

Ductless HVAC systems will not include many of these more advanced forms of ventilation. There will still be an indoor and outdoor unit, and the indoor units (or "heads") can often heat and cool (though some are cool-only). However, these are generally for an individual room or area, such as a finished basement or attic.

Many consider a home's natural ventilation to be a part of this area as well. The ability to create cross-flow from windows and doors can be an important factor in keeping your home comfortable.

HVAC Equipment - Cooling

An HVAC system will traditionally include an air conditioner (or several of them for commercial properties). Additionally, heat pumps also work similarly to air conditioners. A heat pump can cool but can also heat a home.

Heat pumps are traditionally paired with electric furnaces, which supplement a heat pump's ability to provide efficient heat. Air conditioners are traditionally paired with gas furnaces.

How Does An HVAC System Work?

 

The important thing to know is that HVAC equipment moves air. In general, a system exists to move warm air elsewhere, either into the home or out of it. A home's air conditioner, heat pump, and furnace capture or create the heat, then the blower and ductwork help to facilitate the movement.

Below we look at each sub-system and talk about specific equipment and processes. It's important to remember that a central air HVAC system is a living, breathing system that functions as a whole. The heating system isn't siloed off entirely from the cooling system, and the parts and processes that help both functions properly often overlap.