[Long quote but informative. Discusses how the witch hunts broke women psychologically, the effects of which we can observe in modern women.]
The woman in the crowd [at a witch killing] would vow never to go near a magic-worker again, no matter how badly she needed her advice; she would never again trust a midwife, would neither tell nor ask her anything, no matter how urgently she needed her help. Come to think of it, she would guard her lips with her neighbors—because any woman could be a witch, she must not be associated with any of them. The women's subculture of the Middle Ages, which has been much studied, began to dissolve under the terror of witch hunting. The new cult of individualism that cultural historians write about in connection with the sixteenth century was based not only on capitalistic competition or Renaissance idealism; it was, in the case of women, based on fear. In the lands of the witch hunts, women came to fear one another, for their lives.
Another transformation effected by the witch hunts altered community life. Alan Macfarlane and Robert Muchembled have argued that witch accusations developed in order to resolve village tensions. Looked at from the other end of the story, not that of accusation but of public execution, one must question their conclusion. As Erik Midelfort wrote, "If this was social catharsis, it nearly killed the patient." To do Macfarlane justice, he acknowledges that English village life was undergoing change and that the relief that witch accusations brought merely masked those deeper tensions. But surely the reign of terror that was unleashed by the witch hunt added to the level of violence in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Europe. Just as we know that we are brutalized by the violence on television, in the same way that earlier society's tolerance for violence was raised by the public nature of witch executions, and specifically their violence against women. These rituals taught people that "the woman's crime" deserved the most severe punishment possible, that women, who up to that time had seldom been marked publicly as criminals, were capable of doing the ultimate evil.
Finally, ritual seeks conversion. The obvious conversion here was demanded of the victim—that she confess, and thus save her soul while losing her life. But a more far-reaching conversion was being preached: as the woman in the crowd watched Anna's ashes being scattered, she knew that she too was evil. The saying went that "there is something of the witch in every woman." In the moment that Anna stepped up into the cart, she became The Witch, and thereby she became every woman. For the woman watching her, what was changed and transformed by the ritual was her belief about herself. In this highly instructive rite, anyone might learn to fear and obey the rulers of Bavaria; what a woman might additionally learn was that her very nature was demonic. And if someday the authorities came for her, she would at first protest her innocence, but finally she would admit what she had learned to be the truth at Anna's burning: that she too belonged to the devil. She had internalized the message.
We are beginning to trace the dehumanizing effects of this campaign on women. For one matter, women began to fear to speak up for themselves. In England, for example, the seventeenth century saw a decrease in the number of rape accusations brought to court (not necessarily in the number of rapes committed), and most of the few men brought to court on the charge were acquitted; rape, then as now, was difficult to prove. The lower accusation and conviction rates began to appear between 1558 and 1599, just after the major witch hunts got under way. The compiler of these statistics, Nazife Bashar, concludes, "Male judges and juries were loath to punish in any way other males for any sexual offense against females . . . [although they] were quite prepared to send to their deaths members of their own sex for crimes other than rape." No doubt the low conviction rate discouraged women from turning to the courts, because evidence about rape is painful to give even when the court is sympathetic. But we must emphasize the fact (as Bashar does not) that this trend occurred just as women themselves were being indicted for witchcraft. It was no time for women to stir the waters.
Women began to protest less in general. From having, at the end of the Middle Ages, a reputation for being scolds and shrews, bawdy and aggressive, women began to change into the passive, submissive type that symbolized them by the mid-nineteenth century. True, some women still dared to act up. Some rioted for bread and took matters into their own hands in the markets. In 1766 at Ashby-de-la-zouch, for example, an old Englishwoman, enraged that a farmer asked two pence too much for his butter, clapped "one hand in the nape of his neck, [and] with the other rubbed a pound of butter all over his face"—an act worthy of any spirited medieval market woman. At Hereford market in 1757 "a female mob," incensed that a badger (a buyer) had tried to buy grain above market price, seized him, "and beating him in a very severe manner, they broke all the windows in his house." But food for their families was not the only need that drove eighteenth-century Englishwomen to riot. On the crucial question of the enclosure of land (farmland being taken over by entrepreneurs for more profitable sheep grazing), women in Stafford-shire in 1771 destroyed the fences that enclosed the common near their homes.
Arrested and jailed, they were rescued by local citizenry who attacked the jail with stones. Frenchwomen were active in their Revolution, and in both countries a handful of women saw that they must demand their rights. But the times were against them. Throughout the nineteenth century middle- and upper-class women were increasingly forced to be ladies, and female sexuality was perceived as passive. As Judith Walkowitz commented of this period, "There seemed to be no social space or social narrative for independent female desire." Even as the first women's movement was being organized in England and the United States, women elsewhere in Europe were still seen as the potentially dangerous sex that must be controlled—and "control" was what European men had gained a lot of experience at doing.
-Anne Barstow Llewelyn, Witchcraze