Images from Croatia, 2025 - Partisan, Anti-Facist, World War 2 Memorials, Statues and Plaques
What's striking is that statues and memorials like this exist across all of the ex-Yu countries, celebrating those who fought against facism (see how many times facism is engraved into stone).
When we look back in history, we celebrate and commemorate those who stood up and fought back, those who rejected facism, those who said no.
Now we see facism on the rise once more across Europe, Palestine and the US. How will we remember those who fight back? Who will reject facism in all its forms? Who say no? What will the plaques of the future say?
Hopefully they will still read something along the lines of Smrt fašizmu, sloboda narodu.
I keep looking at the surroundings - the buildings, the roads, fields and forests, trying to imagine what it was like in the 1940s. For some of the buildings, no doubt the same, maybe fewer of them. Maybe newer looking. Maybe maybe maybe.
We sat on a roof terrace yesterday overlooking parts of the town of Pula; the 1st century Amphitheatre to my right, the port behind me. I could see across a few streets of the town, and was trying to picture it during wartime. The bar we sat in, La Resistance, had Tito and Partisan imagery on the walls, presenting a heritage of rebellion and fight, although how much this was real or just a gimmick I am not sure. Sometimes I think I am looking for things which aren’t there, in the many spaces left behind by history and language.
Nothing is preventing me form making everything up, creating a story of my grandfather, silently moving between buildings in Pula after he was blocked form returning home due to strengthening of Italian guards at the border. Or him sleeping in derelict buildings, waiting for help to come from the underground resistance movement. But none of this is true. In all likelihood he was captured, guilty only of being Slovenian, and then held in a camp or camps until he managed to find himself in the right crowd of men who brought him along in their escape party.
And so without facts and knowledge, without finding a diary or letters or his name on an official intern list I am left to wonder and use my imagination, trying to read historical documents for context, and explore relics and museums to try and sense something like I felt in Italy a few years ago. In the absence of anything solid, I have to explore millions of clues, some helpful, many not, and try and piece together a jigsaw of life in Yugoslavia during the 1940s, as if doing so will somehow give me what I need - a clearer sense of identity and belonging in a country which no longer exists.
In family research terms, 2024 has been more of a trickle rather than the wave of things I found during my first year of research. I knew things would slow down after finding all the "easy" stuff, but also trying to balance this in between busy work and life, 2024 has not been nearly as fruitful as I envisaged.
But I've not been slacking! Here is what I have been able to do this year.
One thing I have managed in those brief moments I have amongst everything else, is reading. And although quite a few other books have been stealing my attention (especially this, this and this) , I have still been able to read around Second World War in detail (as told in this 2 part series) as well as Misha Glenny's The Fall of Yugoslavia.
Discovering more about Yugoslavia has played a big part of my year. I have been emailing family in Slovenia, listening to the Remembering Yugoslavia podcast, and also thinking about what role my grandfather and my family heritage play in shaping my identity. I wrote about that here:
When you are introducing yourself to someone for the first time, what do you lead with?
Finding documents and research on Yugoslavia's role during the second world war is difficult whilst based in the UK and not being able to speak any Slovenian or Serbo-Croat. Or Italian for that matter (as it is my belief that my grandfather operated, and was subsequently interned, in Italy somewhere between 1941 and 1945). Many of the wartime records and archives from Italy during this time have been destroyed or suppressed (some have suggested this was to help Italy rejoin the EU and NATO post war), or records were destroyed during the breakup/breakdown of Yugosalvia in the 1990s.
However, I have stumbled upon academic researchers exploring topics, themes and activities of Yugoslavia during World War 2. Using Academia.edu I am working my way through many papers which are already shedding light on the context and history of Italy and Yugoslavia during the 1940s.
Academia.edu is the platform to share, find, and explore 50 Million research papers. Join us to accelerate your research needs & academic in
When reading or web research feels a bit too much, I can watch documentaries through YouTube or other streaming services. I am also most of the way through the 26 part BBC documentary The World At War, a very thorough, detailed and brutal examinaton of all aspects of the second World War. Cannot recommend highly enough.
Other than all of this contextual research, trying to find where my grandfather was captured and interned has been the primary aim of my research this year, with a particular focus on Italian POW Camps. I am far from concluding anything here, but after researching Gonars I am now moving on to the camps at both Rab and Bari. Others may follow in coming months and I will write about each in turn.
I wrote this post as a reminder to myself that although disappointed I haven't "cracked this case" yet and I haven't got that full picture of my grandfather's activities during the war, I have done what I can and even 2 years in, this family research is never far from my mind.
I wish I could take the time away from work to explore more thoroughly, visit all the places my grandfather was or could have been, and really take my time to document all of this. But like most family historians, I will have to make do with my approach of doing what I can when I can and living with this mystery just a little while longer.
The big idea: can you inherit memories from your ancestors?
The science of epigenetics suggests we can pass on trauma – but trust and compassion too
The impact of the starvation your Dutch grandmother suffered during the second world war, for example, or the trauma inflicted on your grandfather when he fled his home as a refugee, might go on to shape your parents’ brains, their behaviours and eventually yours.
For an unknown period between 1941 and 1945, my grandfather was interned as a prisoner of war, as a political prisoner, as a Partisan sympathiser or simply as a Yugoslav Slovene.
For the last few months I have been trying to locate the camp where he was held, and where the above photo was taken. I think I may have found the camp, or at the very least I am getting closer.
I have pored over the photo we have of my grandfather, with the words "Prisoner of War" written on the reverse in my grandmother's writing. One thing which struck me in particular was the guard in the background, with what looks like a white cap. Hold that for one moment.
Wider research of archives, forums, articles and web pages led me to this photograph taken at Gonars concentration camp in Udine, Italy.
Note the guard in a white cap on the left hand side. This photo was taken at the gates of Gonars concentration camp.
Researching Gonars showed a number of other potential links which create a stronger bond between my grandfather and Gonars than any other camp.
(…)Il campo di concentramento fascista venne innalzato nel 1941 in previsione dell’arrivo di prigionieri dal fronte russo, ma di russi non n
One of the most detailed accounts of this time comes from Joze Martincic, an independently published account of his time and his escape from Gonars in 1942.
In this account, it is revealed just how many arrests were made of regular Slovene citizens, regardless of affiliation. Also within the account, names are mentioned which correlate with my grandfather's artefacts from the war. We also hear from Joze how the Italians did not record prisoner details correctly due to the language barrier;
Italians were unable to pronounce Slovenian surnames...the number of prisoners they had prepared for internment almost never matched, mainly due to the incorrect pronunciation of Solvenian surnames.
In this account, many of the prisoners give false names, which has been a theory I have held for a while as to why my grandfather has no official record of being interned.
I feel closer now than ever in locating the camp where my grandfather was held. Focusing on Gonars (and Rab) I should hopefully be able to find further links and connections so that I can say for definite.
This is just an initial review of findings and theories. More to follow.
As I begin the next chapter of research into my grandfather's journey through World War 2, I am focusing on his whereabouts betwen 1941 and 1945.
We believe some of this time was spent detained in a PoW camp, but we are not yet sure which one. We have a photo and anecdotal stories passed down the family. I also have a series of replies from official bodies saying they have no record of my grandfather.
During the height of the conflicts in Wolrd War 2, there were over 1000 camps for detainees, including Concentration Camps, Transit Camps and Prisoner of War Camps.
A needle in a haystack doesn't even begin to cover what I am trying find, and so to try and help narrow things down, and to provide some context and clairty of definitions, I am starting with some of the basics before investigating which camps he could possibly have been detained in.
What is a Prisoner of War?
Today, every country in the world is a party to the Third Geneva Convention, which also confers a special mandate on the ICRC, entrusting it
A prisoner of war (PoW) is "A combatant who falls into the hands of an adverse party...in the course of an international armed conflict".
The rights afforded PoW's also stretches to civilians, so that any persons "who fall into the hands of the enemy during an armed conflict are protected under humanitarian law. If the individual is a combatant, he or she is accorded protection as a prisoner of war. If the individual is a civilian, he or she is protected as such." (Medecins Sans Frontieres)
Under the Geneva Convention, which at the time of Word War 2 was in its second iteration, and hence why I am flipping into past tense here, Prisoners of War and other civilian detainess were granted legal rights of protection.
To oversee these rights, the International Committe of the Red Cross (ICRC) were entrusted with a central role of "protecting the dignity and wellebing of PoWs". With the responsibility of monitoring conditions of those detained, the ICRC would attempt to visit camps and interview those detained.
However, during the Second World War, when attempting to access those captured by the Germans, this was not straightforward. German Red Cross had been pulled into being state owned and was no more than a puppet committee, and they did not comply with the ICRC's demands to visit detainees.
On 29 April 1942, the German Red Cross informed the ICRC that it would not communicate any information on "non-Aryan" detainees, and asked it to refrain from asking questions about them.
The ICRC have since acknowledged they were "impotent" during the Nazi regime.
27 January is the anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz in 1945. For the ICRC, it also marks a failure, the failure to help and protect
So although no official records seem to exist for my grandfather thus far(acknowledging that I haven't completed all my investigations), I am slightly encouraged.
At first I felt that no records existed because he wasn't technically a PoW as he wasn't a combatant, which I assumed due to his age at this time. Of course it is possible he was a member of the Yugoslav Partisans at the age of 18 - we know that other members of our family were part of Tito's Partisan army.
However, it is just as possible, if not more likely, that he was captured by the Italians as a Slovene, and simply not visited by the Red Cross, especially given the difficulties they were having with Germany (which I read as all Axis powers).
Now I can understand why I have received responses From the ICRC stating that they have no known records of my grandfather during this time. I can also understand why no records exist from the former Yugoslavia, given this country no longer exists and many records were destroyed during the conflict of the early 1990s.
But with this clarity on the definitions surrounding Prisoners of War, along with this context and background of how PoWs were treated and monitored, I can start to find a way of narrowing down my searches and focus my investigations to find my grandfather in and amongst the historical chaos and confusion of the Second World War.
I am fascinated by individual stories and experiences of World War 2, not just my grandfather's story, but those humans on all sides and from all backgrounds who found themselves caught up in conflict.
These books, which I was lucky enough to find in one of Oxfam's bookshops, are incredible. They are filled with diary entries, speeches, interviews, newspaper articles, Red Cross reports...a truly fascinating insight into the experiences of war on ordinary people.
They are very carefully and lovingly curated. Hearing the experiences from different people and persepctives, whilst following the general timeline of World War 2, makes it feel somehow more real.
BBC News: Great escapes: How WW2 captives found a glint of light
BBC News - Great escapes: How WW2 captives found a glint of light
An exhibition opens that explores the human spirit of hope and resilience during times of captivity.
Can't wait to visit Kew and see this. I am still trying to find where my grandfather was held during World War 2 and these stories give me hope and some clues to research further.
In the collection of my grandfather's things are two hat badges - red stars from the Yugoslav People's Army.
In our family we have stories which have passed down about involvement with the Yugoslav partisans. But stories can be misremembered or mistranslated.
What we do hold are these two badges and some photos of family in military uniform.
But we haven't seen any evidence of my grandfather being active in the military during this time. In 1941 he was too young, only 17/18 years old (although one of our family stories is him being a lookout and so may have had some level of invovlement)
The mystery is why my grandfather had these badges at all.
Possibility (a) is that these belonged to his siblings who did fight for the partisans (we have some photos of them in military uniform) and he was gifted them when they met up after the war. This doesn't seem very likely, and they both lived longer than he did so he would not have received them as some part of dowry or whatever.
Possibility (b) is that he actually fought on behalf of the Yugoslav people's army. He never spoke about this time, and he was extremely young, but we currently have no evidence of what happened between 1941 and 1945.
Possibility (c) is that he bought them privately from somewhere. Again, not very likely - I can't see the motivation for this, and he was not a wealthy man so this would feel like an extravangance.
If most likely scenario on the face of it is (b) then how would I find this information? I have more research to do...
My grandfather and World War 2 - a slightly longer conversation with ChatGPT
Following a short conversation with ChatGPT last month, I have managed to find a bit more time to think about questions, interact, respond and ultimately to get a bit more from the internet's new posterchild.
I am trying to trace the movements of my grandfather during world war 2. If I provide you with statements as if written from his point of view, can you help give historical context so I can try and see situations through his eyes?
Of course, I'd be glad to assist you in understanding the historical context and providing insights into your grandfather's experiences during World War II. Please feel free to share the statements from his perspective, and I'll do my best to offer relevant historical information and context to help you gain a deeper understanding of his journey and the events he might have encountered during that time.
I was born in Stara Oselica in Slovenia in 1923 on a farm with brothers and sisters. Was this Slovenia or Yugoslavia at this time?
In 1923, the region of Stara Oselica was part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which was later renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929. So, at the time of your birth in 1923, it was known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.
This country was created after World War I, when several South Slavic regions, including Slovenia, Croatia, and Serbia, came together to form a new unified state. The name was changed to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, and it remained that way until World War II when the country was invaded and disintegrated.
Your birthplace, Stara Oselica, would have been part of this larger kingdom during your early years. If you have any more statements or questions, feel free to share them, and I'll continue to provide historical context and help you understand the events during your grandfather's time.
Before Germany invaded, would knowledge of the Nazis and the invasion of Poland etc be common knowledge in Yugoslavia? Would I have been expecting them to invade?
Before Germany invaded Yugoslavia, knowledge of the Nazis and their actions, including the invasion of Poland, would have been relatively limited among the general population. In the 1930s, the rise of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler was mostly seen as a distant and foreign phenomenon, and news about the specific events in Germany, such as the annexation of Austria (Anschluss) in 1938 and the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1939, might have reached Yugoslavia, but not in great detail.
During this time, communication and information dissemination were not as advanced as they are today. Newspapers, radio broadcasts, and word-of-mouth were the primary means of information sharing. As a result, the knowledge of international events was somewhat restricted, and the common people in rural areas, like Stara Oselica in Slovenia, might have been less aware of the geopolitical developments in Europe.
While there may have been some awareness of tension and instability in Europe, the notion of an imminent German invasion of Yugoslavia would likely not have been a widespread expectation among the general population until the actual invasion began in April 1941. The rapid and unexpected nature of the invasion caught many people by surprise, leading to a swift and chaotic occupation of the country.
In 1941 Germany invaded. Is it likely they did this through Austria and into Slovenia?
Yes, that's correct. In 1941, Germany invaded Yugoslavia during World War II. The invasion took place through Austria and into Slovenia. On April 6, 1941, German forces, along with their Italian and Hungarian allies, launched an offensive against Yugoslavia from multiple directions, including Austria and northern Slovenia.
The German invasion of Yugoslavia was swift and overwhelming, leading to the rapid collapse of the Yugoslav defenses. Within a short period, most of the country was under Axis occupation. This invasion marked the beginning of a tumultuous and difficult time for the people living in the region, including those in Slovenia, who had to endure the hardships of occupation and resistance throughout the war.
At age 17 when the Germans invaded, am I too young to sign up to the army either Yugoslav or the German army?
During World War II, the minimum age for military service in Yugoslavia and Germany varied based on specific regulations and circumstances. However, in general, at the age of 17, you would likely have been considered too young to voluntarily join the regular army, both in Yugoslavia and Germany.
In Yugoslavia, the legal conscription age during peacetime was typically 21, and it's unlikely that they would have accepted recruits below that age even in the face of an invasion. However, during the chaos of war and occupation, there were instances where younger individuals might have been unofficially enlisted or involved in partisan and resistance activities.
In Nazi Germany, the legal conscription age was 18, and those younger than that were generally not eligible for regular military service. However, the Hitler Youth, a paramilitary organization, actively recruited boys aged 10 to 18 for ideological and militaristic training. While it wasn't a regular army, the Hitler Youth played a role in shaping young minds and promoting Nazi ideology.
It's important to note that during times of war and occupation, circumstances were often unpredictable, and some individuals, even underage, might have attempted to join military forces due to various factors like the lack of alternatives, pressure from authorities, or ideological beliefs. Nonetheless, the standard legal age for enlistment in both countries was typically higher than 17.
My most likely course of action at first then is to survive. I continue to work on the farm and sell produce locally where we can. Could I have travelled easily into Italy across the border?
During the initial stages of the German invasion and occupation of Yugoslavia, survival and maintaining a sense of normalcy would have been primary concerns for many civilians, including you on your family's farm in Stara Oselica.
As for traveling into Italy across the border, it would have been challenging and risky during the early years of the war. After the invasion of Yugoslavia, the country was quickly partitioned among various Axis powers. Italy occupied parts of Slovenia, including areas close to the border, and established a border barrier known as the "Alpine Wall" to prevent unauthorized crossings.
Border controls and restrictions would have been tightened, and attempting to cross into Italy without proper authorization or permits would have been perilous. Additionally, the German and Italian occupation authorities were vigilant in monitoring movement, and attempting to escape or cross borders could result in severe consequences, including arrest, deportation, or even execution.
During the occupation, the situation for civilians worsened, and many found themselves facing food shortages, forced labor, and other hardships. It's likely that your focus would have been on surviving on the farm and coping with the challenges imposed by the occupiers.
As the war progressed and the situation evolved, some individuals did manage to escape and join resistance movements or seek refuge in neighboring countries, but such actions were risky and required careful planning and support from sympathetic individuals or groups.
The Partisan movement had reached out my family and some had signed up. When did the Partisans first become active?
The Partisan movement in Yugoslavia was a significant resistance force during World War II. It was led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito. The Partisans were one of the key resistance groups fighting against the Axis powers and their collaborators during the war.
The Partisan movement began to take shape shortly after the Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia in April 1941. Initially, the resistance was fragmented and disorganized, but over time, it coalesced into a more unified and effective force under the leadership of Tito. By the summer of 1941, the Partisans had started to gain momentum and become more active in their efforts to resist the occupation.
During the early stages, the Partisans engaged in guerrilla warfare, ambushing Axis troops and conducting hit-and-run attacks. They also focused on recruiting and organizing resistance fighters from different parts of Yugoslavia, including rural areas like Stara Oselica.
The Partisan movement grew in strength and popularity, especially among the rural population, as they offered an alternative to both the occupying Axis forces and the collaborationist forces of the Independent State of Croatia (a Nazi puppet state established in parts of Yugoslavia).
It's important to note that while the Partisans were one of the major resistance forces, there were other resistance groups in Yugoslavia, such as the Chetniks, who had a different approach and sometimes clashed with the Partisans. The resistance movements in Yugoslavia were diverse, and the dynamics between them were complex.
If your family had members who signed up with the Partisans, they would have been part of this growing resistance movement, fighting for the liberation of Yugoslavia from Axis control and the establishment of a new socialist Yugoslavia after the war.
At age 17, possibly 18, I am a lookout for the partisans. Years later I will tell my family a story of how I would sit on a high bridge and watch for German tanks. I remember the day clearly when I saw the tanks advancing and had to run and tell others. Is there a bridge near Stara Oselica?
As an AI language model, I don't have access to specific maps or locations, and my knowledge is limited to information available up to September 2021. However, I can provide some general context regarding bridges in the region.
Stara Oselica is a small village in Slovenia, and Slovenia, as a whole, is known for its diverse landscape, with numerous rivers and streams. Given this geographical characteristic, it is likely that there would have been bridges in the area, providing essential crossings over rivers and ravines.
As a lookout for the Partisans, being stationed on a high bridge would have offered a strategic advantage, as it allows for a broader view of the surroundings and better surveillance of potential enemy movements. If there was a bridge near Stara Oselica, it could have been an ideal location for a lookout post during the resistance efforts against the Axis forces.
If you are looking for a specific bridge in the vicinity of Stara Oselica, I recommend consulting local historical records, maps, or reaching out to historical societies or experts in Slovenian history and geography. They might be able to provide more detailed information on the location of bridges and their relevance during World War II in the region.
Remember that historical records, especially from the wartime period, can be fragmented and sometimes difficult to access, but local historians and enthusiasts may have valuable insights that could help you piece together your grandfather's experiences.
Our involvement with the partisan movememnt means that we are at higher risk of being caught and severely punished. Would the punishment have been internment camps in Italy, Yugoslavia, Austria or Germany? Is there one of these camps which would have been more commonly used?
During World War II, individuals involved with the Partisan movement in Yugoslavia were indeed at higher risk of being caught and facing severe punishment if captured by the Axis forces or their collaborators. The specific punishment and treatment of captured Partisans varied depending on the circumstances and the policies of the occupying forces.
Internment camps were one of the forms of punishment used by the Axis powers for captured resistance fighters, including Partisans. These camps were established in various locations across the occupied territories, including Italy, Yugoslavia, Austria, and Germany.
In Yugoslavia, the Axis powers and the collaborationist authorities operated several internment camps for captured Partisans and other resistance members. These camps were known for their harsh conditions, and prisoners often faced forced labor, malnutrition, and abuse.
In Italy, the occupiers maintained internment camps for captured Partisans and Allied prisoners of war. Some of the well-known camps in Italy included Camp PG 29 in Servigliano and Camp PG 57 in Grupignano.
In Austria and Germany, captured Partisans and resistance members were sometimes transported to concentration camps, such as Mauthausen-Gusen in Austria or camps like Dachau and Buchenwald in Germany. These concentration camps were notorious for their brutal treatment of prisoners and high mortality rates.
It's important to note that the treatment of Partisan prisoners was often brutal and inhumane, and many faced the risk of execution, torture, or being sent to forced labor camps.
As the war progressed and the Partisan movement grew stronger, the Axis forces intensified their efforts to suppress the resistance, making the risk of capture and punishment even higher. Many Partisans chose to live in hiding, engage in guerrilla warfare, or seek refuge in remote areas to avoid detection and capture.
Again years later, I will tell my family of my escape from an internment camp. I even have a photograph of me from inside a camp. Were escapes frequent?
Escapes from internment camps, especially during World War II, were relatively rare and challenging endeavors. Internment camps were designed to be heavily guarded and escape-proof, making it difficult for prisoners to break out. However, despite the formidable obstacles, there were instances of courageous and daring escape attempts by prisoners, including Partisans and other resistance members.
The frequency of successful escapes varied from camp to camp and depended on several factors, such as the camp's security measures, the determination and resourcefulness of the prisoners, and sometimes, favorable external circumstances that created opportunities for escape.
In many cases, escape attempts were met with severe consequences if caught, including execution or harsher conditions for those remaining in the camp. As a result, prisoners often carefully planned escape attempts, sometimes with the help of fellow inmates or sympathetic individuals outside the camp.
The determination to escape was often driven by a desire to rejoin the resistance, continue the fight against the occupiers, or simply regain freedom. Escapes could be carried out individually or as part of larger organized efforts, depending on the circumstances.
While successful escapes were not common, they did occur, and each escapee's story represents an extraordinary tale of courage and resilience. These stories have become part of the collective memory of resistance movements during World War II, highlighting the strength of the human spirit and the lengths people were willing to go to resist oppression.
If your grandfather had a photograph from inside an internment camp and shared stories of his escape, it would be a testament to his bravery and determination in the face of adversity.
Other than the photo from an unknown camp, there are no records of my location or activity between 1941 and 1945, when I am picked up in Naples by Allied forces and am asked to join the British RAF as an Aircrafthand. If I have been in Italy most or all of this time, how will I have survived?
If there are no specific records of your location or activities between 1941 and 1945, and you were indeed in Italy during this time, your survival would have been a testament to your ability to adapt, evade detection, and navigate through the challenging circumstances of war.
Here are some possible ways you might have survived in Italy during World War II:
Underground Activities: As a member of the Partisan movement, you might have operated covertly, engaging in clandestine activities, and avoiding capture by the Axis forces and their collaborators. The Partisans were known for their ability to hide in remote areas, organize in secret cells, and carry out hit-and-run attacks.
Living in Hiding: You could have gone into hiding in rural areas or small villages, seeking refuge with sympathetic locals who were willing to help and protect resistance members.
Disguise and False Identity: To avoid detection, you might have adopted false identities or changed your appearance to blend in with the civilian population.
Avoiding Main Roads and Checkpoints: You might have traveled on backroads and avoided main highways and checkpoints where Axis forces were more likely to be present.
Connections with the Local Population: Having support and assistance from locals who were sympathetic to the resistance cause would have been crucial for survival. Local networks of support often provided food, shelter, and information to resistance members.
Escape from Internment Camp: If your escape from the internment camp was successful, you might have gone into hiding or sought refuge with the Partisans or other resistance groups.
Moving Between Safe Houses: Resistance members often moved between safe houses to avoid detection and ensure their safety.
It's important to remember that surviving during wartime required resourcefulness, courage, and the ability to adapt to ever-changing circumstances. Many individuals who were involved in resistance activities during World War II faced significant risks but managed to survive through their determination and the support of others in similar situations.
As a survivor who eventually gets picked up by the Allied forces and asked to join the British RAF, your experiences would likely have shaped you in ways that made you a valuable asset for the Allies in their efforts to defeat the Axis powers.
I read somewhere that there were over 40,000 camps at the peak of World War 2. Are there any official figures on this, and is it known how many were in Italy?
The number of camps during World War II was indeed substantial, but it's challenging to pinpoint an exact figure due to the sheer scale of the conflict and the diverse types of camps that existed. Many of these camps served different purposes, ranging from concentration camps, prisoner of war (POW) camps, internment camps, labor camps, and more.
While the number of camps might have reached tens of thousands globally, it's essential to differentiate between major camps, satellite camps, and smaller temporary facilities. Some sources estimate that there were over 40,000 camps or detention sites in various parts of Europe during the war, but this number includes both major camps and smaller, temporary facilities.
As for Italy, the country had its share of camps, including POW camps, concentration camps, and internment camps. The Italian government established internment camps for individuals considered to be a threat to the regime, and the Axis occupiers also operated camps for prisoners of war and other detainees.
One notable concentration camp in Italy was the Risiera di San Sabba, located in Trieste. This camp was used by the Nazis and the Italian Fascist forces to detain and execute prisoners, particularly during the latter part of the war.
The number of camps and their locations in Italy can be challenging to determine precisely, as historical records might be fragmented or incomplete. Additionally, some of the smaller camps and temporary facilities might not have been well-documented.
If you're interested in exploring more about specific camps in Italy or seeking official figures, I recommend consulting historical archives, research institutions, or experts in Italian history and World War II. They might have more detailed information and can guide you in your research.
There are a couple of things of note in the above conversation which I will investigate further once I have completed the RAF/Military Service investigations. I have felt for a while that my grandfather may have given a false name when in Italy and during any captivity, so it is interesting that ChatGPT presents the same theory.
I have slightly jumped ahead by thinking about the conflict & Prisoner of War period, but these questions had been buzzing around my brain for a while, and following my disappointment after contacting official sources, I personally needed some new theories and angles to investigate further.
ChatGPT is becoming an invaluable resource. Even if you take some of this information at face value, the ability to ask questions of something and get some reflections, albeit AI generated, is massively helpful for me as I struggle for time whilst juggling this research with a family and full time demanding job.
But it is this last sentence from ChatGPT which rings very true. It is both a reminder of what I have taken on and an unlikely source of motivation;
Remember that genealogical research can be both rewarding and challenging, and the journey to uncovering your family's history often requires time, patience, and persistence.
I have visited the National Archives in Kew twice, and thought that I would write a short guide for anyone wanting to do this in future. And also as a reminder for me in future visits as I seem to forget things quite easily.
The journey starts with their website and a search of the documents available.
We are a non-ministerial department, and the official archive and publisher for the UK Government, and for England and Wales.
Lots of documents have already been digitised and are available to download online, but many have not and so are only available if you order them to view in the reading room in Kew.
Your next step should be to create an account. You will need this to bookmark documents, and to book your visit to Kew.
What documents should I look for?
I searched the online catalogue for my documents using the M.U. numbers associated with my grandfather's service which were provided on his military record. So if like me you are researching military service, its important to obtain this record first (see this previous post to learn about about how I did this).
Other than this, the search function is good so using keywords brings back helpful results. Just make sure you are searching RECORDS and not the WEBSITE (confusing!)
The only difficulty is that the results don't really tell you much, and so there is a bit of a leap of faith as to whether or not a document is going to be helpful to you.
My policy is to order it anyway and have a brief read through once I get to the reading room in Kew.
Once you find documents in your search results, then BOOKMARK them and give them a name which is meaningful to you. Most documents are identified by reference number and so a name makes it easier to figure out which documents you want to order for your reading room visit.
I have my bookmarks, what next?
If you are ready to book a visit then you must order the documents in advance so they can find them for you and have them ready for when you visit.
To visit the National Archives you need to order ID called a Reader's Ticket. This is all completed through the website. Your first visit will have a temporary reader's ticket number so you can complete the process of ordering documents, and then you obtain your pemanent Reader's Ticket when you visit.
You are only able to order so many documents in any one visit. These details are listed on their website when you arrange to book.
Find out more about the booking process.
The process works very smoothly, and before you know it you should have all you need to be able to visit and read through the documents you ordered.
Visiting Kew
So you have your visit booked! Here's what to expect when you visit...
I am fortunate/unfortunate (delete as approproate) enough to sometimes work from London, and so have travelled out to Kew from the centre of London each time. This takes around 40 minutes by Tube.
Kew Underground station is a 10 minute walk to the National Archive centre.
Once inside the building there is a security desk in the main reception (which you only need should you be called over or if you need to ask them something).
Head left - here is the cafe (which is excellent) and on the right hand side the gift shop (also excellent).
To visit the reading room, which is upstairs, first you have to deposit your belongings in the lockers, which are free of charge. I only take my laptop, a pencil (not pen) and my phone. No food or drink is allowed.
Once you are ready, head upstairs, and the public reading room has a reception. This is where you book in and obtain your Reader's Ticket. Have a terrible photograph taken and get your snazzy ID Card!
After this you are ready for your reading room experience.
The Reading Room
Scanning your Reader's Ticket/ID Card through the security gates takes you to the reading room. A large open plan space with dozens of desks - you will have been allocated a desk number which will have been sent in your email confirmation.
Find your desk, then visit the document lockers which are located next to another reception desk. Your locker will be the same number as your desk.
Collect your documents, but bear in mind that you are only allowed to take a small number of documents to your desk at any one time, and so if you have ordered lots of documents to view then get ready to do some walking back and forth. Roller skates are not allowed.
As I am usually short on time, I'm not able to do much actual reading, and so I spend my time photographing pages to read at a later date. This makes my photoreel look a bit like this:
But photography is allowed, and they provide photo stands on the desks to make this easier for you.
Just remember to treat the documents with care and use the wedges and weights provided to hold pages open.
Dealing with emotions
You may not experience this of course, but each time I have visited I have had to handle two main emotions.
There is something very sad about delving into the past and trying to piece together a life story using documents, especially from wartime, and it can sometimes be a difficult read.
The second emotion is disappointment. Documents so far have only given me peripheral information, and each time I have left wondering if I have captured enough to be able to fill in any of huge gaps we have around my grandfather's life.
But its always worthwhile. Even if you only find small pieces of information, I think it is well worth it. These documents do not exist anywhere else in the world. They are one offs. Unique. And you have access to them - for free.
I have more documents in my bookmarks and am organising my next visit to hopefully find out more.
It's coming up to 12 months since I started investigating my grandfather's journey and life through World War 2, and how he came to start his new life in the UK.
I started this investigation through frustration and grief, emotions I still feel 1 year on. And so here's to year 2!
I was in northern Italy on holiday with the family at the time when I decided to pursue this. We were inTrieste, and visited the Risiera di San Sabba, used in World War 2 as a police internment camp, and this visit lit the fuse to me wanting to understand the facts and details behind my grandfather's experience during the second world war.
I don't think I quite appreciated the energy it would take, and the emotional drain, but I think it's been a productive first year. In the last 12 months I have;
Gathered up all family documents and photos
Obtained my grandfather's official RAF military record
Written to, and received responses from, official bodies to try and learn more about his time in a Prisoner of War/Internment Camp
Visited the National Archives in Kew twice, and studied 100's of pages of documents being able to document in more detail my grandfather's time and experiences in the RAF
Translated cryptic messages on the backs of photographs
Made contact with the family of an old Yugoslav friend of my grandfather's
Made contact with my own family back in Slovenia
And so on to year 2. It will be more difficult as information gets more scarce, and time marches on, and memories fade. But this isn't meant to be easy - it's too important.
My grandfather's time in the RAF is coming to an end. His final posting was as part of HQ85 Wing, transferring to Hamburg, Germany, on 22nd August 1947 with 186 other Yugoslav airmen
Out of the hundreds of pages I have read from the National Archives, these are the most detailed descriptions as to the whereabouts and activities of my grandfather, as they make specific reference to "Yuogslav Personnel" which match his RAF military record.
According to the reports, August in 1947 in Hamburg was a mix of social and sporting events, organising closure of bases and monitoring an emerging epidemic of "Infantile Paralysis". Then from 8th August, the logbook starts to mention an intake of Yugoslav/Jugoslave personnel.
As these entries are the closest reference I have to my grandfather's time in the RAF (other than his military record), I have captured each relevant logbook recording and date;
8th August 1947
ACH/GD = Aircrafthand / General Duties (my grandfather's post and rank)
A.O.C. = Air Officer Commanding
B.A.F.O. = British Air Forces of Occupation
S.O.A. = Staff Officer (Administration)
A slight error in the above (maybe due to misunderstanding of miscommunication) as the "Intakes" were not arriving from England but from AHQ Italy in Caserta.
15th August 1947
A week later and confirmation of the transfer is recorded in the Operations Book. This is also the second spelling of Yugoslav (the first written Jugoslave, which is as Freudian a slip as I have seen in these records).
Interesting to note that this unit has not yet moved to Utersen. 85 Wing is at this time located in Hamburg, although some personnel are planned to move to Luneburg (south of the Elbe).
22nd August 1947
Preparations for the transfer are being made. It is possible my grandfather was trained in arms and ammunition, and so could have been given a position as a guard. This must have been a strange experience for someone with English as a second/third language, when not too long ago he would have been part of an internment camp somewhere being guarded himself.
25th August 1947
On 25th August my grandfather is tansferred from Caserta in Italy to Hamburg as one of the 191 Other Ranks/Yugo-slav Personnel. His RAF military record gives a date of 22nd August. These 3 days may have been for prep/packing and travel.
27th August 1947
To note, that whilst I am tracking the movement of the "Yugoslav Personnel", I have not yet seen any record of my grandfather's name. Nor have I found any other Yugoslav name as yet. However, all of these dates match the RAF record and other immigration documentation I have for my grandfather.
2nd September 1947
My grandfather landed in Liverpool, England on 24th September 1947.
11th September 1947
It is likely that my grandfather would have taken part in this parade. We have a number of photographs of him in full RAF uniform.
19th September 1947
Some nervousness about allowing wider Yugoslav support/involvement? On researching Yugoslav Liaison Mission, several rabbit holes appear which will be explored in another post. It also looks as if some administrative documentation may be held by the US Authorities. Joy.
And so ends the lengthy and fairly detailed description of my grandfather's last posting for the RAF outside of England.
Whilst only there for one month, according to the documents, he would have been assisting with the move to RAF Utersen, whether that is with general duties or as a guard.
On 24th September my grandfather arrives in Liverpool and starts his life in the UK. His final weeks in the RAF are spent in a demobilisation camp in Cheshire, where he meets my grandmother and starts planting new roots in a new country.
Pushing aside all those fears and media reports about loss of jobs, technology taking over etc etc, I thought I'd ask ChatGPT to try and discover more information. It was very interesting.
Can you find any information relating to Yugoslav men being recruited into the RAF during and after world war 2?
Yes, during and after World War II, Yugoslav men were indeed recruited into the Royal Air Force (RAF). Yugoslavia, which was under German occupation during the war, had a significant resistance movement known as the Yugoslav Partisans, led by Josip Broz Tito. The Partisans actively fought against Axis forces and collaborated with Allied powers, including the RAF.
The recruitment of Yugoslav men into the RAF took place through several channels. One notable avenue was the British Military Mission, which worked closely with the Yugoslav Partisans and coordinated their activities with the Allies. The British Military Mission established liaison and training teams to assist the Partisans, and they also facilitated the recruitment of Yugoslav volunteers for the RAF.
Yugoslav pilots who joined the RAF were trained in various flight schools in the United Kingdom, such as the No. 6 (Yugoslav) Squadron RAF, which was formed in 1942. This squadron consisted of Yugoslav personnel and flew combat missions alongside other RAF units.
One prominent example of Yugoslav involvement in the RAF was the No. 352 (Yugoslav) Squadron RAF, also known as the "Free Yugoslav Air Force Squadron." It was formed in 1944 and primarily composed of Yugoslav pilots who had escaped German-occupied Yugoslavia. The squadron flew missions over occupied Europe and participated in the Allied bombing campaign against Axis targets.
After the war, Yugoslav pilots who had served in the RAF often returned to Yugoslavia and contributed to the establishment of the new Yugoslav Air Force. They brought their experience and expertise to help build the aviation capabilities of the post-war Yugoslav military.
Overall, Yugoslav men played a significant role in the RAF during and after World War II. Their contributions were part of the broader Allied effort to combat Axis forces and support the Yugoslav Partisans' resistance movement.
What about involvement other than being a pilot. An aircraft hand for example
Yugoslav men also participated in the Royal Air Force (RAF) during and after World War II in roles other than pilots. One such role was that of aircraft hands, which involved supporting the operation and maintenance of aircraft.
Yugoslav volunteers who joined the RAF often received training in various technical roles related to aircraft maintenance and support. These roles included aircraft mechanics, ground crew, technicians, and engineers. These individuals played a crucial role in ensuring the airworthiness of RAF aircraft and supporting flight operations.
As part of their training, Yugoslav aircraft hands received instruction in aircraft maintenance, repair, and servicing. They learned how to inspect aircraft, carry out routine maintenance tasks, troubleshoot mechanical issues, and ensure the aircraft's readiness for flight. Their work was essential in keeping the RAF aircraft in operational condition.
Yugoslav aircraft hands often worked in collaboration with their British counterparts, gaining valuable experience and knowledge from the RAF's established systems and procedures. This exchange of expertise contributed to the development of aviation skills among Yugoslav personnel.
It's important to note that while information on specific individuals who served as aircraft hands may be challenging to find, the overall involvement of Yugoslav men in non-pilot roles within the RAF during World War II is well-documented. Their contributions as aircraft hands and in various technical capacities were significant in supporting the RAF's operations and maintaining its aircraft fleet.
Where could I find more documents?
To find more documents and information about Yugoslav men being recruited into the RAF during and after World War II, you can explore various sources and archives. Here are some suggestions:
1. National Archives (United Kingdom): The National Archives in the UK holds a wealth of historical records related to the RAF and its operations during World War II. Their collection includes personnel files, unit records, mission reports, and other relevant documents. You can search their online catalog and access digitized records or visit their physical location in Kew, London.
2. RAF Museum: The RAF Museum, with locations in London and Cosford, preserves and showcases the history of the RAF. They have an extensive collection of documents, photographs, and artifacts related to RAF operations, including information about Yugoslav personnel. The museum's archives and research facilities are open to the public, and you can contact them for specific inquiries.
3. Yugoslav War History Museum: The Yugoslav War History Museum in Belgrade, Serbia, may hold relevant documents and materials pertaining to the involvement of Yugoslav men in the RAF. They focus on preserving and displaying the history of the Yugoslav Partisans and their contributions during World War II. Contacting the museum or visiting their archives may provide additional resources.
4. Libraries and Universities: Research libraries and university archives with collections focused on military history, World War II, or aviation may have relevant documents and sources. Examples include the British Library, academic libraries specializing in history, or university departments with expertise in Yugoslav or military history.
5. Online Databases and Digital Archives: Explore online databases and digital archives that specialize in military records and historical documents. Websites like Ancestry.com, Fold3, and the Commonwealth War Graves Commission may have records related to Yugoslav RAF personnel.
6. Historical Societies and Veteran Associations: Contacting historical societies, veteran associations, or organizations dedicated to preserving the history of the RAF or Yugoslav military might lead you to further resources or individuals with knowledge in this area.
7. When conducting your research, be prepared to explore multiple sources, cross-reference information, and potentially reach out to experts or historians specializing in Yugoslav or RAF history. They may offer guidance and direct you to specific records or unpublished sources that can provide further insights.
Are there any historians specialising in Yugoslav military history in the UK?
Yes, there are historians in the UK who specialize in Yugoslav military history and can provide valuable insights into the involvement of Yugoslav men in the RAF during and after World War II. Here are a few notable historians who focus on Yugoslav military history:
- Dr. Dejan Djokić: Dr. Djokić is a historian specializing in the history of Yugoslavia and the Balkans. He has written extensively on various aspects of Yugoslav history, including military history. He is currently based at Goldsmiths, University of London.
- Dr. Richard C. Hall: Dr. Hall is a historian who has researched and published on the military history of Yugoslavia. His work includes studies on the Partisans and the Yugoslav resistance during World War II. He has taught at the University of Cambridge and the University of East Anglia.
- Dr. Marko Attila Hoare: Dr. Hoare is a historian and author focusing on the history of the Balkans, including Yugoslavia. He has written on various topics, including the history of the Partisans and Yugoslav military forces. He has taught at the University of Kingston and Kingston College.
- Dr. Richard Westlake: Dr. Westlake is a military historian who has written extensively on the RAF and military aviation. While not specifically focused on Yugoslav military history, he may have insights or resources related to the involvement of Yugoslav men in the RAF during World War II.
These historians have conducted research, published works, and have expertise in Yugoslav military history or related topics. Contacting them directly or seeking out their publications may provide valuable information and further guidance for your research.
Additionally, reaching out to relevant academic departments, such as history or international relations departments, at universities in the UK could potentially connect you with scholars who specialize in Yugoslav military history or have relevant expertise.
