Research Paper 2014

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THESIS: Internment of Memory (Salyers)

"Through the continued education and preservation efforts fo Mrs. Embrey and the Manzanar Committee, the camp began to receive more recognition as a historically significant site; and in 1985, Manzanar became a National HIstoric Landmark. Unfortunately, the efforts of Mrs. Embrey did not come without opposition from the local communitiy. Some local residents were angered by theuse of the provocative term "concentration camp," while others wanted a site that would depict all layers of Owens Valley history without focusing on three yeras of struggle. Local workers kept unlisted phone numbers because of the number of threats received against their lives and the property, adn the local newspaper received so many letter that they eventually refused to print any more. The LADWP's ownership of the property also caused additional issues, as they refused to relinquish control of the site until they received adequate compensation in return."(249)  Despite opposition, Mrs. Embrey and her colleagues were excited to recieve the news of Public Law 102-248 

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THESIS: Interment of Memory (Salyers)

"The interest in preservation at Manzanar arose in 1969 when a UCLA group of approximately 150 people, primarily young Sansei and Yonsei, or fourth gneration Japnese immigrants, drove north to clean up the camp site and commemorate the reolcation in what became the first Manzanar Pilgrimage. Nisei Sue Kunitomi Embrey participate din this journey, and her dedication to the preservation of Manzanar and the sharing of its history soon became legendary. Born Sueko on January 6, 1923, Mrs. Embrey was relocated with ehr family to Manzanar just one year after graduating from high school. While behind barbed wrie she worked in teh camouflage net factory and served as editor of the camp's newspaper, the Manzanar Free Press. She left the camp for Madison, Wisconsin in 1943...She was also constantly activie in political and activist circles advocating rights for minorities, workers and women.  Her participation in the 1969 Pilgrimage was a turning point for Mrs. Embrey taht inspired her to undertake a '35 year endeavor to raise awareness of the enduring consequences of Executive Order 9066." In 1971, she adn Warran Furutani, a youth director for hte JCAL who helped develop the first pilgrimage, crated the Manzanar Project, which became the Manzanar Committee, an organization dedicated to educating the public about EO 9066 and to earning California State Historic Landmark status for Manzanar.According to their nomination paperwork, Manznar deserved such distinction because it was the first of the WRA camps, it was the closest to LA, which had a significant Japanese American popluation, and it included a cemetery and a monument of arachaeological and historical importance. In January 1972, the California Department of Parks and Recreation declared Manzanar to be a State Historic Landmark #850 and ad edication ceremony with over 1,500 attendees was held in conjunction with the 1973 Pilgrimage. Four years later, the Los Angeles Cultural Heritage Board also declared Manzanar to be an LA City Historic Landmark.  

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THESIS: Internment of Memory (Salyer)

"During the war the federal government leased the property from the LADWYP, but when teh lease expired on June 30, 1946 there was much debate over what to do with the structures remaining at hte site. The 22 WRA administration buildings became the Manzanar Housing Project for returning war veterans, and many of the other buildings were sold to locals or demolished. In 1947, the local Inyo County Veterans of Foreign Wars leased the camp auditorium to use as a clubhouse and meeting hall until 1951 when it was converted to a garage for the Inyo Country Roads Department. Between 1956 and 1972, various parts of the camp were used as a county airport, a camp for the Nevadna National Guard, a drag racing strip, and an elk hunting ground for the California Department of Fish and Game."(247-248) 

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THESIS: Internment of Memory

"With the exception of isolated incidences like the Hood River American Legion Post, the wartime record of the 100th/442nd RCT was often considered a legitimate and acceptable subject to honor through memorials or monuments at the individual or local level. In fact, the relative lack of monuments in the decades after the war had little do with the service record of the Nisei and more to do with its association with the relocation and confinement of Japanese Americans. it was difficult to mention the enlistment of new soliders without remindign the public about their origins in stragne cities like Manzanar, California or Topaz, Utah. thus, the public tirbute to Japanese Amreicans was not contested for what it represented on teh surface -- the heroic deeds of the Nisei soldiers in Europe and the Pacific -- but for what it implied -- the hypocrisy of the mass relocation. The desire felt by many, Japnese American and Caucasion alike, to forget the wra confinement led to teh repression of national commemoration for a highly honored group of soldiers for decades before the political climate became such that the Japanese Americans and other minority groups regained their voice. Instead, Nisei tributes erected by their fellow woldiers quietly emerged in communities and cemeteries across the nation with little public fanfare or national recognition."(190-191 )

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Thesis: Internment of Memory (Salyers)

For instance, Manzanar, California was the home of the Children's Village, the only orphanage within the ten WRA Camps adn it also included an experimental guayule plantation and laboratory used to produce a rubber substitute. The 6,ooo acres at Manzanar housed over 100 orphans among its 10,000 inhabitants and is considered one of the bets documented camps as both acclaimed photographds Dorothea Lange and Ansel Adams photographed the camp as outside obervers, while Toyo Miyatake illegally documented his time there as a detainee with a contraband homemade camera as well."(64) 

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Thesis: Internment of Memory (Salyers)

"Manznar also produced their own response to the 'concentration camp' debate in teh form a lesson plan titled, 'Loaded words,' which aimed to teach tenth graders the differences between dennotation, connotation, and euphemisms as well as how connotations can change over time. This lesson plan is distributed to teachers as part of Manzanar's educational materials that were devleoped to assist educators in teachign the Japnese American experience througha  avariety of subjects. Interestingly, the final page of the lesson plan is a disclaimer of sorts. Written by Gordon Chappell, Regional Hisotrian for hte NPS, the letter states, 'A lot has been made of the use of the terms 'concentration camp' adn 'internment camp.' I have recommended that the National Park Service not use the term 'concentration camp' in its interpretation becasue the term has become intextricably associated with Nazi death camps of World War II.'(20-21_ 

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THESIS: The internment of memory (abbie lynn Salyers)

"According to Embrey, the Manzanar Committee originally submitted a much longer text and they were told they would ahve to change not only its length but also its wording. The State Advisory Commission fo the Department of Parks and Recreation opposed such words as 'racism,' 'economic greed,' and 'concentration camp.' Embrey recalled a heated meeting with Department of Parks and Receration Director Wiliam Penn-Mott in which he refused to allow the 'negative words' originally penned by the committee members. Warran Furutani, founding chair of the Manzanar Committee, called Penn-Mott a racist for his refusal to allow the preferred wording, and Assemblyman Alex Garcia, who represented the LIttle Tokyo district of Los Angeles, threated to take their argument to the Legistlature, at which point Penn-Mott gave in to the demands of the Manzanar Committee and JACL representatives. According to the Manzanar Historic Resource STudy, the final three sentences that appear on teh plaque today are a compromise between teh state and the committee. The state wrote the first sentence, the committee wrote the second and the third was a compromise between the two organizations." 

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THESIS "The Internment of Memory: Forgetting and Remembering the Japanese American World War II Experience" (Abbie Lynn Salyers)

"On April 14, 1973, the site of Manzanar in teh Owens Valley of California hosted over 1,500 people who had come to the remote location to celebrate the unveiling of a historic plaque designating Manzanar as the California REgistered Historic Landmark Number 850. The California State Department of Parks and REcreation had agreed to designate a 4.33 acre area, including two rock sentry houses and hte camp cemetery as  Sate Historic Landmark in January 1972. The designation resulted from the efforts of the Manzanar Committee founded with the duel purpose of educating hte public as to the signnificance of the Manzanar stie and of preserving Manzanar as a historic site. Led primarily by one former detainee, Sue Kunitomi Embrey, the Committee successfully won state and later national landmark status."  See also: Harlan D. Unrau, The Evacuation and Relocation of Japanese Ancestry During World War II: A Historical Study of hte Manzanar War Relocation Center. 

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Imaging Japanese America: The Visual Construction of Citizenship, Nation (Creef)

"If you arrive early at the annual pilgrimage, on the last Saturday of every April, you can join the walking tour led by park rangers and former internees, who fifty years later can still find their way around the unmakred paths, pointing out where their family and friends used to live, while sharing stories about the residents who are now long gone. 

Each year, a memorial service and picnic are held in the far north-west corner of the camp in front of the old cemetery that is marked by an eight-foot 'Soul Consoling Tower,' a white granite obelisk erected by internees in 1943 and now surrounded by half a dozen remaining graves. Only one bears a name on its tombstone: Jerry Ogata, who died in camp when he was just three months old. Of the eight-six internees who were buried at camp, most were exhumed and reburied after the war. The cemetery is now one of hte most visited sites in teh camp, and the six remaining graves are covered with coins, flowers, and origami birds left behind by visitors who stop to pay their respects throughout the year. 

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Imaging Japanese America: The Visual Construction of Citizenship, Nation (Elena Tajima Creef)

"What remains of Manzanar War Relocation Center itself is not hard to find, provided that you know what you are looking for -- even though writer James Houston once added, "If you didn't know what to look for, you'd never know who had been there." After the war, with lumber at an all-time premium, the buildings were for the most part disassembled plank by plank, and the rest of the camp was bulldozed or removed until the place was, as one newspaper put it 'flatter than Hiroshima.' 

And yet, a handful of the original camp structures remain. Two samll pagodalike stone buildings, formerly used by the camp police as sentry posts, still stand at what was the official entryway. And nearby, the barnlike camp auditorium now functions as a storage room for the county. If you walk the perimiter of the camp, littered with gnarled barbed wire, you can find what is left of hte toppled concrete foundations that once held up the eight guard towers, as well as the stones marking the old camp flagpole, the camp dump, and hte decorative rock gardens that once adorned the housing area for Caucasion personnel...National Park Service archaeologists, who have now spent three seasons surveying the site, have discovered hundreds of names and dates written by internees in the concrete foundations of the camp hospital, laundries, and reservoir." 

A map provided by the National Park Service makes it easy to walk about the one square mile of hte camp's perimeter and fee teh presence of the thousands of Japanese Americans who lived here from 1942 to 1945...Abandoned by the War Relocation Authority over fifty yeras ago and reclaimed by the National Park Service and the sage brush flats fo the Owens Valley desert, Manzanar now holds historical fascination as the culture of ruins, as a kind of Japanese American ghost towns and archaeological dig. One thing remains certain: even though thousands of visitors trek annually into this desert site, Manzanar continues to be a place on teh American map that many would still like to forget."(135) 

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maging Japanese America: The Visual Construction of Citizenship, Nation (Elena Tajima Creef)

"Sharon Yamato's self-published essay, Moving Walls: Preserving the Barracks of America's Concentration Camps (1998), documents the systematic recovering, dismantling, and rebuilding of these barracks for the museum exhibit. It chronicles -- with the help of photographer Stan Honda -- how they operate as one of hte most powerful artifactual signifiers of the trauma of the internment experience. Moving walls is particularly striking for Yamato's understanding that the barracks operate as a metaphor for collective historical memory and the public and private process of tearing down the walls of silence that have impacted the Japanese American community and families for over fifty years." (130)  

"What is most compelling in Moving Walls is Yamato's story of how the volunteers themselves 'reclaim their past' by returning to Heart Mountain, where the physical work of tearing down walls literally unleashes years of repressed memory of familial hardship and shame. For many of hte volunteers, the barracks project becomes an intensely personal one."(130) 

"As I leave the exhibit, I note that the simple act of relocating the Heart Mountain barracks from Wyoming to downtown Los Angeles is to insist on a politics of visibility for a late twentieth century memorializing of wartime Japanese American history."(122)

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Imaging Japanese America: The Visual Construction of Citizenship, Nation ...

"Currently, its postwar history is not only mapped in multiple mainstream and off-road sights/sites, but also reterritorializes what critics like Lisa Yoneyama have elsewhere called the 'Cartography of memory' as distinct modes of Japanese American camp history have been and continue to be staged, commemorated, and exhibited in static and moving representations around the country." (121) 

"In her brilliant and probing examination of hte embroiled politics of memory surrounding the nuclear devastation of Hiroshima, cultural critic Lisa Yoneyama offers a suggestive approach for how one might rethink the contested nature of remembering other wartime experiences embedded in the visual culture of ruins...[she says] "We must question why and how we remember -- for what purpose, for whom, and from which position." (122) 

"For those who remain doubtful of the controversial nature of wartime memory and the camps, I pose the following questions: Over fifty years later, why does the term 'concentration camp' continue to disturb when it is used to reference internment camp history? In spite of the evidence left behind by old concrete posts that once anchored armed guard towers, why do some critics still insist that such watchtowers never rexisted? Why has almost every internment memorial plaque commemorating the history of the camps generated controversy -- even defilement? And finally, when the Smithsonian Institution opened its 1987 exhibit on the camps, why were the show's curators accompanied by armed guards?"(122) 

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KCET "Group Objects to Giant Solar Plant Near Manzanar Historic Site"

http://www.kcet.org/news/rewire/solar/photovoltaic-pv/group-objects-to-giant-solar-plant-near-manzanar-historic-site.html "LADWP's Southern Owens Valley Solar Ranch would occupy 1,200 acres (1.875 square miles) on Manzanar-Reward Road. That's immediately east of the site of the former Manzanar War Relocation Center, often referred to as a concentration camp, where 11,070 Americans of Japanese ancestry were forcibly interned during World War II. The solar plant, which would be 50 percent larger than the National Historic Site itself, would sit atop the camp's historic landfill, which has never been fully surveyed for archaeological resources, according to advocacy group the Manzanar Committee, which lobbied successfully for the site to be protected by the National Park Service through the 1980s and 1990s." 

The 200-megawatt plant's million solar panels would provide power to LADWP customers in Los Angeles and the Owens Valley. An Environmental Impact Report for the project is expected later this year, with construction set to begin in 2014 for completion by 2019.

"The very idea that any land in or around the Manzanar National Historic Site could be used for a massive generating facility would not harm the ongoing efforts to preserve and understand the tragedy of justice that occurred there is simply beyond insensitive, and it's not just insensitive to the Japanese American community, the survivors of America's concentration camps and their families," said Manzanar Committee Co-Chair Bruce Embrey in a press release. "That gross insensitivity extends to the efforts of the National Park Service, and others who have worked so hard to bring this brief, but essential, part of American History to light."

Once a more or less abandoned agricultural town near Independence, Manzanar was converted into the most notorious of the United State's wartime Relocation Centers beginning in March 1942. At its peak the camp held 10,046 people, two thirds of them American citizens, and 90 percent from the Los Angeles area. More than 100,000 people were interned nationwide during the war years for being of Japanese extraction.

Ironically, LADWP, which owned the land until the National Park Service bought 814 acres of the site in 1997, steadfastly opposed the establishment of a National Historic Site at Manzanar, even sponsoring a bill in Congress that would have blocked the designation.

"LADWP has a long and checkered history regarding the establishment of the Manzanar National Historic Site," said Embrey. "They have offered support over the years to the annual Manzanar Pilgrimage, led for decades by Sue Kunitomi Embrey. But the relationship between LADWP and the Manzanar Committee has been marked by serious and fundamental disagreements along the way."

Embrey points out that the scale of the Southern Owens Valley Solar Ranch and its proximity just a few miles east of the site will have an irrevocable impact on the historic setting of the camp. "Some of the best and most memorable parts of Manzanar have always been seeing the remnants of the camp set in contrast to the natural landscape of the area. The continued restoration of the gardens, the apple orchard, and other crucial archaeological aspects... none of that should be compromised for commercial exploitation."

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Manzanar HIstorical Site (Dubel) Controversy

"The controversy has focused primarily on a California Historical Landmark plaque that refers to Manzanar, and the other internment camps, as 'concentration camps'. The marker, which was placed at the entrance of the site in 1973, is appropriate, according to many Japanese-Americans, but opponents say the term is misleading. Although still in place at the site, it has been both defaced and defiled by camp opponents." 

"Manzanar critics rely, in part, on revisionist history books written by opponents such as Lilian Baker. They are convinced that the Japanese were happy to be in the relocation centers; it was the only way that the U.S. government had of protecting the Japanese from Caucasian citizens enraged about Pearl Harbor. They are unwilling to accept that Japanese-Americans were deprived of their civil rights. Critics also claim that the NPS is distorting the facts." 

"Hastings, along with others, claims that photographs taken at the site, including those of Ansel Adams, have been doctored by the NPS in an attempt to create a tourist attraction and alter the truth of what really happened."(99) 

"Ross Hopkins, as well as being NPS's superintendent at Manzanar, is also an outspoken advocate of Manzanar as a historic site. He believes the fate of Manzanar is due more to NPS budget constraints than to local opposition...The irony of Manzanar is that, as a camp, it was filled with more than 10,000 people, built into a makeshift town inside the gates, and destroyed within four years, while in the first five yeasr that the NPS owned it, they were 'unable to erect a single sign, picnic table or portable toilet...Meanwhile, tourists see only the scrub land, not the story behind it" 

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Remembering a Japanese-American Concentration Camp at Manzanar National Historic Site

Janice L. Dubel in Myth, Memory, and the Making of the American Landscape 

"V-J Day, came in 1945, and the federal government closed the camps..." 

(94-95)

"Of the ten internment camps used during the war, Manzanar was chosen as the location for a National HIstoric Site because it was the best preserved. The site was designated a California Register Historical Landmark in 1972, and the State Department of Park and Recreation placed a plaque on one of the two remaining senry posts in 1973. By 1975, Manzanar was listed in the National REgister of HIstoric PLaces, and by 1985, it had been designated a National Historic Landmark. Congress commemorated the site "to provide for the protection and interpretation of the historical, cultural, and natural resources associated with the relocation of Japanese-Americans during World War II." 

"On March 3, 1992, President George Bush signed into law the establishment of Manzanar National Historical Site and turned control of the site over to the National Park service, although no appropriations were part of the bill. While the site as now officially designated a historic site, the federal government did not own the land."

"In 1996, Ross Hopkins, the sole NPS employee at the site, was assigned the job of converting 550 acres of ruin into a suable national monument. As progress continues and the camp is slowly restored, this site presents an opportunity for people of all ages and ethnicities to understand the fear, racism, discrimination, and hatred that led to the establishment of ten American concentration camps. Unfortunately, work at the site has not been as successful as originally planned. Although established in 1992, as of July 1997, one tour guide worked the site. The guide, Richard Stewart, and the tours he conducts were financed by grants from the Eastern California Museum." 

"The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers used bulldozers to level the Manzanar complex in 1946. When they were finished, all that remained of the camp were two of the eight sentry posts and the wood-frame auditorium. One journalist wrote that "the camp was dismantled and the remains sank back into the sagebrush. We had won the war, after all, and history is written by the winners. In this case, we decided to let Manzanar fade from memory, as if it didn't really happen"  "Past the gatehouses about half a mile into the camp stands a white obelisk twelve feet high. A dozen graves are outlined in the sand, marked with small stones and surrounded with a barbed-wire fence. "The black Japanese script cut into the white face of the obelisk reads simply, 'A Memorial to the Dead'" (Houston and Houston 1973:136) A large green building that once served as a high school auditorium stands off to the right.  Still visible are the concrete foundations and supports for the buildings that once served as barracks, washrooms, and mess halls, along with the stone paths that led to them. Hundreds of names and dates are carved into the concrete. The garbage dump is still there with its mixture of broken china and the remains of children's toys. Also discernible is the ruin of the once magnificent reflecting pool."  "Improvements to the park continue. Manzanar has been awarded a millennium grant so that the barbed-wire fence that originally surrounded the camp can be reestablished. Additional plans are in the works for reconstructing the auditorium, restoring a gaurd tower, and establishing temporary visitor contact stations."(96)  "In February of 1996, teh NPS released its General Management Plan for the historical interpretation of Manzanar. Although the plan includes the rebuilding of a guard tower and reinstallation of at least one of hte original camp barracks, some think that the inclusion of other historical markers is deliberately intended to soften the impact of the story of the camp. In the years following the publiciation of the plan, the agency "has received anonymous threats that buildings erected or restored at Manzanar will be destroyed" Personal threats have also been leveled against people invovled with the Eastern California Museum that has been maintaining an extensive exhibit on Manzanar." 

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"Manzanar, the eyes of the world are upon you"1 : Performance and Archival Ambivalence at a Japanese American Internment Camp

http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/theatre_journal/v059/59.2colborn-roxworthy.html

But this ambivalent status—as a non–"Nazi-style" internment camp with ball-playing instead of "torture" and smiling, dancing internees standing in for torture victims' "shaved heads"—has also provided the imaginative space for the unabashedly nostalgic revue called Camp Dance, which has been regularly performed since 2001 by Los Angeles' Grateful Crane Ensemble, mainly for audiences of aging former internees at retirement homes and community centers as well as on the restored auditorium stage at Manzanar itself.15 According to its web site, the ensemble performs "nostalgic programs" consisting of "music, song and storytelling" and "honors, pays tribute to and remembers our Issei, Nisei and Kibei16 elders [as] our small way of 'giving something back.'"17 Camp Dance's cast mainly consists of Sansei, or third-generation Japanese Americans, and is set in an unnamed internment camp.

Faced with the ambivalence created by these two extreme caricatures—"concentration camp" and "holiday on ice"—government propaganda and mass media accounts understandably slanted heavily toward the "holiday on ice" image.

The NPS's strategy of interpreting Manzanar through its connections to theatre and performance invites the question: What does such a festive lens tell us about the internment's place in US history? This essay historicizes the internee performances staged at the Manzanar auditorium and other camp venues during the war in order to demonstrate the ideological choices made in terms of which genres of performing arts make it onto the historical record and into what I will call the "spectacle-archive" regurgitated at memorial sites like the Manzanar Interpretive Center run by the NPS. the ambivalent metonym of upbeat, all-American performance has come to stand for the internment's place in contemporary memory. 

Footnotes  4.  According to Manzanar National Historic Site Superintendent Frank Hays, despite the NPS's suspicious stance toward reconstruction, "[t]he approved plan for Manzanar calls for reconstruction of the camp's barbed wire fence, camp entrance sign, guard tower, and barracks buildings. . . . One or more of the camp barracks buildings that still exist in the local area will also be relocated and restored" for a demonstration block at the site. Frank Hays, "The National Park Service: Groveling Sycophant or Social Conscience: Telling the Story of Mountains, Valley, and Barbed Wire at Manzanar National Historic Site," The Public Historian 25, no. 4 (2003): 78. It is also important to note that the site now has two public entrances, so passing through the guardhouses en route to the Interpretive Center is optional for tourists. In addition to the three remaining original buildings, Manzanar's internee cemetery still stands with a famed obelisk that serves as a rallying point for those who travel to the camp each year for the annual Manzanar Pilgrimage. Manzanar's nomination as the most viable campground for commemoration was successful "because of the large number of recognizable artifacts and remains on the site." Manzanar Committee founder Sue Kunitomi Embrey's oral history, in Last Witnesses: Reflections on the Wartime Internment of Japanese Americans, ed. Erica Harth (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 196.

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JACL "JACL ANNOUNCES SUCCESS IN CAMP PRESERVATION FUNDING "

http://www.jacl.org/documents/11-3-09%20Camp%20Preservation.pdf

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The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) is proud to announce that the fiscal 2010 Department of Interior appropriations bill included funding for several World War II Concentration Camp preservation projects. Preservation of these historic camps in which Japanese Americans were incarcerated without due process has been a top priority of the JACL. The JACL Washington D.C. Office has worked closely with Senators Inouye and Feinstein as well as Congressman Honda in assuring the inclusion of camp preservation elements in the 2010 Fiscal Budget. President Obama signed the bill into law on October 30, 2009." 

Floyd Mori, JACL National Executive Director said, "The camp preservation funding included in next year's budget will enable the nation to enhance its understanding of this unfortunate time in American history when civil rights were ignored with resulting suffering and sacrifice thrust upon the Japanese American community. Much more, in terms of educational programs, will be made available to students and citizens alike as facilities are developed and artifacts preserved.” The bill includes $3 million for the camp preservation program, $900,000 for barracks reconstruction at Manzanar, California, and $350,000 for park boundary expansion of Minidoka National Historic Site, Idaho. The bill reports a timely issue threatening Minidoka which involves a 190-foot tall power line that is planned to run through the footprint of the camp. The text calls upon the Secretary of Interior to resolve the issue within 90 days of its enactment stating, “The conferees remain supportive of the Secretary's renewable energy initiative and also recognize that the Federal government has an obligation to preserve lands for the Minidoka National Historic Site and other relocation centers and to provide for their preservation and interpretation.”