Italy's Unification

Case study of Italy VS France nationalism By Alanna Plan and Anita Yiu

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What happened to Italy after unification?

In 1861, Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed as king of new Italy. 

In southern provinces, unification brought upon violent rural insurrections.

After Austria lost against Prussia at the Battle of Sadowa in 1866, Venice was no longer under Austrian rule. Italy had acquired the Venetian province, but other Italian speaking provinces still remained under Austrian control.

After Napoleon III’s defeat by Prussians at the battle of Sedan, Italian troops were finally free to enter rome on September 20th.

The decline of the Habsburg monarchy and rise of new German Reich caused unexpected unification. Through Italian nationalists points of views, new Italy was the “realizations and aspirations of Italian people to freedom and independence”.

Despite the fact that Italy was united, Italians were still fighting amongst eachother over national and political identities for many years.

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The South of Italy and Unification

In March of 1860, there was a plebiscite that approved of annexation to Piedmont, which won overwhelming support from Tuscany.

However, in April, the government declared that France would receive Nice and Savoy, causing outrage in the Italian nationalists.

When the radicals and democrats learned of the insurrection in Palermo against the Bourbon rule, they took the opportunity to releaunch a unification plan and get rid of the monarchist solutions created by Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II from the North.

In May, the radicals depended  on Garibaldi's thousand volunteers to Sicily on steamboats, which left at Marsala.

At Calatafimi, Garibaldi's victory in defeating a small Bourbon force was the signal for peasant revolts and insurrections throughout the island, which threatened the line of communication for the Bourbon army, forcing them to retreat.

In August, Garibaldi crossed to the mainland and landowners abandoned the Bourbon monarchy to take control of the local government.

On September 7th, Francis II, the young king of Naples, decided to make a stand north of the capital, allowing Garibaldi to enter Naples effortlessly.

Meanwhile, in Turin, Cavour tried his best to prevent radicals from gaining control, and also to prevent Garibaldi from liberating Rome. Cavour fears that Garibaldi's plan might lead to war because the Napoleon III promised to protect the pope at all costs.

Cavour had to make a quick decision. He sent the Piedmontese army, with Victor Emmanuel II in control, to invade the Papal states and "protect the pope", but really to prevent Garibaldi from advancing.

Surrounded by the Piedmontese army and Garibaldi's supporters, the Bourbon army sued for terms.

On October 26th at Teano, one of the most memorable moments of the Risorgimento occured when Garibaldi loyally surrendered his command to the king, Victor Emmanuel II. This meant that the danger of the Piedmontese forces clashing with the nationalists was now avoided.

From October to November, plebiscites were quickly organized, and the southern provinces, Sicily and former Papal States all voted for annexation to Piedmont.

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The Italian Revolutions of 1848-1849

After the election of the new pope, Pius IX, the control of the new government of the Papal states had been lost. 

A riot during festivities of Palermo's patron saint, Santa Rosalia, became the first place for European revolutions during January 1848. 

Hoping to contain the political protests, the King of Naples conceded a constitution, which Tuscany, Piedmont and the Pope followed.

However, revolutions took a big turn after overwhelming Vienna. Venice was faced by militant protests and Milan faced popular insurrection, forcing the Austrian forces to temporarily retreat. 

With Austria temporarily gone and unable to protect, Piedmont declared war on Austria in order to liberate Lombardy. However, the pope denounced the war.

On May 15, King Ferdinand II of Sicily ordered his army to fire at the delegates at the opening ceremony of the new parliament in Naples and suspended the constitution. 

After Pope Pius IX's election, Charles Albert, King of Piedmont, was convinced that a government of broader freedom was required and granted the constitution. However, he was defeated and exiled by Austrian troops. This caused many to think of ways to take action.

Not many ideas, such as Mazzini's to start a war of the people rather than a war of the princes', and others were popular or supported. The best chance for republicans to take action was when the moderate provisional government set up by Pius XI had collapsed in Rome. Republicans and radicals from all over Italy headed for Rome, causing a republic to be proclaimed on February 1849.

However, the rulers of Naples, Spain and the government of the French Republic sent armies in order to restore the pope to the capital. In the name of freedom and unification, Giuseppe Garibaldi upheld a defense for Rome against the superior French Army and failed. As of July 3rd, the French occupied Rome.

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Italy and European Politics 1849-1859

In spring of 1849, the Austrian force returned. By the summer, Piedmont was the only state left with the constitutional government. Turin, a city within Piedmont was a haven for political refugees from all over Italy. Here, liberal reforms were introduced by Count Cavour, making Piedmont attractive to investors.

Victor Emmanuel II, was abdicated by Charles Albert. Many liberals supported Emmanuel's expansionist views. However, his aim was to exploit the nationalists, making them pay a lot of money.

During the Crimean War (1854-1856), Austrians were revealed to be found weak. This eventually gave the idea to the Piedmontese government to exploit the expansionist ambitions of the new French emperor, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, also known as Napoleon III. Napoleon also agreed and found that backing up the Piedmontese government against Austria would offer many opportunities to expand French political influence.

On January 1858, an attempt on Napoleon III's life was made by Malian nationalist, Felice Oisini, marked the beginning of diplomatic meetings between Turin and Paris, which led to secret meetings between Count Cavour and Napoleon III at the lakeside resort of Plombières.

In July of 1858, the two agreed to a joint war against Austria. The end result divided the Italian peninsula into 4 states.

In January 1859, the French and the Piedmontese signed a secret treaty.

In April, Cavour successfully provoked Austrians into issuing an ultimatum.

After three bloody battles at Magenta on June 4th. Solferino, and San Martino, both on June 24th, the French emperor decided to end the war after Austria gave up Lombardy.

On July 11, 1849, The Peace of Villafrance, a peace treaty, was established between the French and Austrians. The treaty outraged many Italian nationalists because the Veneto region still remained under Austrian control.

In the meantime, Count Cavour's supporters were busy creating fake revolutions in Tuscany, the central duchies (Central Italy), and the northern parts of the Papal State in order to create an excuse for plebiscites to favour annexation towards Piedmont. The situation was however confusing because Britain got involved in order to prevent France from gaining any new territory in Italy.

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The 1840's and Italy

European economics went down during this time, causing popular unrest in Italy to grow.

Revolutionaries took this opportunity to create insurrections, but were unsuccessful. 

In 1846, the new pope, Pius IX, was found to be sympathetic to the reform. He began to work on reforms in administration, education and the law.

In 1847, he ended censorship of the press, by the end of the year, around one hundred independent newspapers were circulating in the Papal State. Political clubs were established in the town. 

Near the end of 1847, the reform in the Papal States was followed by Piedmont and Tuscany, causing a joint custom union between the two states and Papal State to be made.

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Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)

In 1833, Garibaldi joined Mazzini's Young Italy movement. He participated in a mutiny on a Piedmontese warship in order to continue his plot of sparking a republican revolution in Piedmont but his plans were exposed and he was sentenced to death by Genoa. He escaped before his trial. 

Garibaldi was one of the greatest figures in the unification of Italy.

He continued his political activities from a distance. One of his greatest strengths was inspiring enthusiasm and dedication to the cause of Italian unity that he had himself. 

In 1849, after the pope had fled Rome, Garibaldi and his supporters defended Rome against superior French attacks and Neapolitan forces but had to withdraw in the end. Only five thousand of his followers were allowed to retreat and they had to go through Austrian territory, leading to the death of many of his followers and his beloved wife. Garibaldi's defence and retreat is what made him seen as one of the heroic figures of Italy.

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Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872)

Mazzini was an intelligent , sensitive and physically frail man who became a revolutionary nationalist. He believed in equality of men and of race.

In November 1830, he was betrayed by the secret group, Cabonari and arrested, leaving him to decide to work for the independence and unification of Italy. 

When he was released from prison in 1831, he settled in Marseilles in the south of France where he launched his new secret society, "Young Italy".

those who joined had to swear to dedicate themselves to make Italy "one, free, independent and united" (union, liberty, independence)

First Mazzinian revolt took place in Piedmont among the army, but was betrayed and the conspiracy was crushed by the government

military commands were given to General Ramorino from Genoa, and Mazzini gave him money to raise the army. The money was depended on by the few hundreds of men in the group, but it was lost by gambling in Paris

losing more men, there was no point in continuing the expedition

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Revolutions in the 1820's

Upon hearing of news of revolution in Spain, the liberals of Naples were stirred into action. After gaining popular support, a widespread uprising was developed. 

Revolutions occurred in Naples and Sicily, causing King Ferdinand to promise on July 6th to issue a new constitution within a week.

Army officers, students, lawyers, teachers and doctors, who were mostly middle class, patriotic, enthusiastic and daring all were part of the revolutions. 

The revolutions did not only occur in Naples and Sicily. In 1821, Piedmont faced a revolution, and the Papal State faced one in 1831. However, for all these revolutions, Austria kept their defence for the Royalists and protected them. 

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1814, After Napoleon's Defeat Outside of Italy,

Those in Italy had no power as they were squeezed between Austrian and French control. The French empire was collapsing.Napoleon's former chief of police reported that "nationalism was the most powerful political force on the peninsula".

Austria gained control of the peninsula once again and created the Treaty of Vienna, which allowed the previous monarchy rulers to return.

King Ferdinand of Sicily had greatly increased the power of the church, and gave it authority to censor any publications with which it disagreed to. This made freedom of expression impossible and angered the middle class who could no longer speak freely. Ferdinand was also in great financial difficulties, making him cut down public expenditure, halter work on road and harbours, and reduced little educational provisions. There was poverty, corrupt government and restriction on personal freedom everywhere. Additionally, in Sicily, agricultural prices had fallen, the economy had been disastrous, and the social classes were heavily affected, especially the peasant class where became more impoverished and in debt.

The rulers had two aims, to prevent France from any possibilities to gaining control of the peninsula in the future, and to suppress revolutionary or nationalist movements that could endanger the current monarchy. 

There was also a lot of political unrest going around. After many influences, many liberal ideas have been going around.Their moderate, non-violent policy was in contrast with that of the radical, the extremists, who wanted social reforms and a redistribution of wealth and was prepared to use revolutionary means to obtain them.

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Early 1800's, Napoleon's Return from Egypt

After returning, Napoleon's army defeated Austria in May at the battle of Marengo. He created an Italian republic in Milan.

In 1806, Napoleon renamed the republic to the Kingdom of Italy and declared himself as king, causing the Italian peninsula to be under Napoleonic rule, which prioritized France. 

Under this rule,

the power of the church and the pope was reduced

landownership was changed or redistributed

agriculture improved

the bourgeoisie, or middle class was beginning to develop

peasants had to deal with higher prices, heavier taxes, and conscription

The French only wanted raw material and did not want any competition, thus leaving Italy's companies to stay undeveloped.The new Italian middle class had a chance for political discussion and action because of the new constitution. 

A representative government was introduced to Italy and France was split into three parts:

Piedmont, which Austria annexed to France

Kingdom of Italy

Kingdom of Naples that was ruled by Napoleon's brother Joseph, and then his brother in-law, Murat

All of these changes had encouraged Italian nationalism. France had given Italy a sense of unity. at first by force, but later by legal reforms and introducing political changes.

Despite that, there were frequent peasant revolts and most of Italy resented Napoleonic rule by 1809. Popular unrest was caused by conscription and high taxes. Liberals and churchmen formed secret societies against the French.

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The Italian flag was first introduced in Italy by Napoleon when he established the Cisalpine Republic in 1797.

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April 1796, Napoleon's Army invades Northern Italy

After Napoleon's victories, The French replaced Austria. 

The French Directory occupied Rome and expelled the pope, creating the Roman Republic. Many other Italian republics were formed as well, such as the Cispadane Republic.

In January 1799, France had taken over Naples and formed the Neapolitan Republic. 

However, counter revolutionists and royalists (Austrians with Russian help) chased the French out of Northern and Central Italy, causing the republics to collapse. 

Although the republics were short lived, they marked the first time Italy had freedom of speech, causing the first thoughts on Italian independence and unity to be publicly debated.  

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The French Revolution's Influence on Italy

In 1789, the French revolution inspired middle and upper-class groups in Italian cities, giving them the name of "Italian Jacobin". They wanted a democratic government, less powerful church, and a more liberal society. However, the Italian government disliked the Jacobin and was against their goals.

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Italy Before Napoleon and the Start of Unification (1780's)

Italians had trouble communicating with each other. It was hard to unify Italy because everyone had different languages and many people were not educated as well. Additionally, different parts of Italy hated each other.

The Italian government spent and spent. Although fertile land was everywhere, there was no money spent on growing crops that could be used to feed many in Italy.