psychology

Psychology Revision

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Evaluation of Learning Theories of Attachment

Learning theories of attachment have come under considerable criticism in recent years. There is strong psychological evidence to suggest that food has little to do with attachment.

Schaffer and Emerson (1964) observed 60 babies in Glasgow for about a year. They found that the infants were not most attached to the person who fed them. Instead, they were most attached to the person who was most responsive and interacted with them most.

Harlow (1959) placed infant monkeys in a cage with 2 wire cylinders with faces. One was bare, but provided the baby with milk. The other was covered with towelling for contact and comfort.

If food were the cause of attachment, we would expect the monkeys to cling to the milk cylinder. Instead, the monkeys went to the towelling covered cylinder as a secure base from which to explore.

The study indicated that supplying food is not sufficient for the formation of an attachment. However, the towelling covered 'mother' did not supply love to allow healthy psychological development.

In later life, the monkeys were indifferent or abusive to other monkeys and had difficulties mating and parenting.

The study shows that contact comfort is preferable to food comfort, but not enough for healthy development.

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Learning Theory Of Attachment

Operant Conditioning

The second theory is operant conditioning. This argues that we learn through consequences.

Each time behaviour meets with a reward or reinforcement, it is likely to be repeated. According to Dollard and Miller (1950), a hungry infant feels discomfort and seeks to reduce this discomfort. when the infant is fed, it produces a feeling of pleasure and the behaviour is reinforced.

Each time behaviour meets with a punishment, it is less likely to be repeated.

The food is the primary reinforcer and the person who supplies it is the secondary reinforcer. Attachment occurs because the infant seeks the person who can supply the reward.

Classical conditioning explains how involuntary emotional attachments are formed. We have learned to associate their presence with pleasure.

Operant conditioning explains how voluntary attachment behaviours are formed. We show such behaviours because of their consequences.

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Learning Theory Of Attachment

Learning Theories were popular in the first half of the 20th century. They propose that behaviour is learned, not biological. All behaviour, including attachments, is learned through classical or operant conditioning. 

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is learning through association. This theory was first developed by Pavlov who noted that he could teach dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell.

He measured the unconditioned response (salivating) of the dog when presented with the unconditioned stimulus (the food).

He then measured the reaction of the dog to the neutral stimulus (the bell) and found that the dog showed no conditioned response (no salivation).

He began to present the dog with the neutral stimulus (the bell) as well as the unconditioned stimulus (the food) and the dog began to show a conditioned response (salivation).

This same concept can be applied to attachment.

When the baby is presented with the unconditioned stimulus (food), it shows an unconditioned response (pleasure).

When the baby is presented with the neutral stimulus (it's mother), it shows no conditioned response (neutral feelings).

When the baby is presented with both the neutral stimulus (Mum) and the unconditioned stimulus (food), it shows an unconditioned response (pleasure).

Eventually, when the baby is presented with the neutral stimulus (mum), it will show a conditioned response (pleasure).

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Internal Working Model - The Continuity Hypothesis

  Support For Bowlby's InternalWorking Model

Black and Schutte carried out an investigation in 2006 including 205 young adults.

They composed an adult attachment interview in which they measured the feelings about current and previous adult relationships.

They presented the participants with a list of adjectives that described childhood relationships with both parents.

They asked participants for a description of childhood events, such as birthdays and christmas, that illustrated relationships with parents.

This produced rich, qualitative data.

They found a link between the types of childhood and adult relationships.

Those who recalled positive and loving relationships with their mothers were more trusting and more likely to open up to their partners and seek comfort from them.

The who recalled positive relationships with their fathers were more likely to rely on their partners.

There were issues with the validity of information.

Evidence Against The Internal Working Model

Zimmerman carried out a longitudinal study of 44 children.

The attachment type of each child was initially assessed between 12-18 months of age to see how they responded to separation and strangers.

They were reassessed at 16 years old using interviews focusing on relationships with parents.

Zimmerman recorded life events such as parental divorce and deaths within the children's families as they were growing up.

Zimmerman found that childhood attachment type was not a good predictor of attachments in adolescence.

The impact of serious life events, such as parental divorce, was more important.

The study suggests that continuity may only apply when serious life events do not have an impact on the child.

Zimmerman found issues in the fact that the signs of attachment may not always be trustworthy.

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John Bowlby's Theory Of Attachment

Instinct

Bowlby believed in natural selection - the idea that attachments are formed to ensure that the baby survives to maturity so that they can reproduce.

Children give out social releases to generate a response, such as crying and smiling, which encourage the caregiver to look after them.

The caregiver's instinct is to protect the baby from harm and nurture them to ensure survival to maturity.

Without these instincts, the baby's survival is less successful, so it doesn't survive to maturity and the genes are no longer in the gene pool.

Monotropy

A single attachment is made to one person who is most important to the baby.

For every infant, one relationship is more important than the rest.

Internal Working Model

A template/role model for the baby's future relationships.

The child is said to build up a model of themselves as loveable or not, the caregiver as trustworthy or not and a model of the relationship between the two.

The Internal Working Model will influence the child's later relationships through to adulthood.

Sensitive Period

First 3 years of the child's life.

Borrowed concept from the work of Lorenz and other ethologists who had pointed to rapid formation of attachments in some animals.

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Signs Of Attachment

Maccoby (1980) argued that we can see that two people are attached by looking out for the following signs:

Joy On Reunion: The person is welcomed back with smiles, hugs and clinginess even if they have only been gone a short while.

Proximity Seeking: Wanting to maintain closeness and spend time together. A baby might show this by watching someone closely and crawling after them if they move around the room.

Orientation To The Other Person: Attention is directed towards the other person and attempts are made to engage the other in activity or interaction.

Distress On Separation: A young baby may howl if someone leaves the room or an older child may feel homesick.

Stranger Anxiety: Or fear of strangers.

Secure Base Effect: Where the presence of the individual gives confidence to explore an unknown environment but they are frequently returned to or checked in on for reassurance.

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Introduction To Attachment

According to Schaffer (1996) we can formally define attachment as:

a long-enduring, emotionally meaningful tie to a particular individual. The object of the attachment is generally someone (most often a parent) who returns the child's feelings, creating a tie that can be extremely powerful and emotionally laden in both directions.