This powerful 19th-century painting by German artist Theodor Hosemann (1807–1875) brings to life Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād, the Amazigh general who forever changed the course of European history.
In the year 711 AD, Ṭāriq crossed from North Africa into Iberia (present-day Spain) with a small army and defeated the Visigothic king Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete. This victory marked the beginning of Al-Andalus, centuries of Islamic presence in Spain. The name Gibraltar comes from Arabic "Jabal Ṭāriq" — meaning "Mountain of Ṭāriq" — in honor of the place where he landed.
Though painted centuries after the event, Hosemann’s work reflects the lasting impact of Ṭāriq’s bold campaign, showing him leading from horseback, sword raised, symbolizing strength and vision.
Hafsa bint al-Hajj al-Rukuniyya (1135–c.1190-1191) was one of the most celebrated female poets of Al-Andalus, renowned for her intellect and literary brilliance.
Romantic affairs
Little is known about Hafsa’s childhood, except that she was born in Granada and that her father was a Berber. Growing up in this vibrant intellectual center, she likely received an excellent education.
Hafsa’s personality shines through her poetry—bold, sharp-witted, and unafraid to speak her mind. She was known for her biting satires and lived on her own terms, never concealing her love affairs.
Around 1154, she became romantically involved with the poet Abū Jaʿfar Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Malik Ibn Saʿīd. Initially, she ignored his advances, as she was involved with someone else at the time. But he persisted, sending her another poem, and she eventually agreed to meet him.
Their relationship, marked by poetic exchanges, was public knowledge, despite the fact that they never married.
Royal poet
That same year, Granada fell to the Almohads, ushering in political changes. Abū Jaʿfar was appointed vizier to the new ruler of Granada, Abū Saʿīd ʿUthmān, who deeply admired Hafsa’s poetry. In 1158, he sent her as part of a diplomatic delegation to his father. Later, Hafsa was granted the town of Rakuna, securing her financial independence.
However, Abū Saʿīd ʿUthmān and Abū Jaʿfar soon became rivals for Hafsa’s affections. The ruler attempted to separate her from Abū Jaʿfar. In 1163, Abū Jaʿfar was implicated in a failed plot against him, arrested, and executed by crucifixion.
Hafsa mourned his death deeply, defiantly dressing in black despite pressure to move on.
From poet to teacher?
Did Hafsa stop writing poetry after this loss? None of her works are recorded for the next twenty years. She found a new path as a teacher. Her talents remained highly regarded, and she was chosen to educate the daughters of Caliph Yaqub al-Mansur in Marrakech.
She passed away there sometime between 1190 and 1191.
Some of Hafsa’s poems
As We Walked
As we walked together
your garden gave no full-faced grin,
but covered its florid blooms
returning our smiles with green envy.
And as we talked together
your river gave no bubbly laugh,
but belched and yelled
to drown out our entrancement.
The world doesn’t sweeten
just because we turn one another to honey.
Each day even the sunny dawn
breaks to blot out those amorous stars.
Dressed in Mourning
Dressed in mourning,
worn deeper than clothes,
it’s that inner fabric
inciting them to threats.
God, give Your blessings
to those trapped within tears,
unseen as the smiles of the slain,
stolen as water from a well.
Let clouds garment this day,
a pale offering.
God’s embrace: a recompense
for a hand I couldn’t lend.
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Further reading:
Glacier Osire, Femmes politiques au Maroc d’hier à aujourd’hui
Hammond Marlé, “Hafsa bint al-Hajj al-Rukuniyya”, in: Meri Josef W. (ed.), Medieval Islamic Civilisation: An Encyclopedia
Pewitt Will, "Five Poem of Ḥafṣa bint al-Ḥājj ar-Rakūniyya in Translation"
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