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Comparing and Contrasting the kingly affirming features in a Brass Plaque displaying the Oba and Charles the Bald in the Codex Aureus

The brass plaque of the Oba of Benin and Charles the Bald in the Codex Aureus use similar methods to affirm them as kings. Their positions within the works are front and center, and their size classically indicates the power they have. The Oba is carrying a coral necklace, bracelets, anklets, coral headdresses, and leopard teeth, which are all symbols of kingly power. Charles the Bald is pictured sitting in the Codex Aureus, and is not holding anything, which is different than the Oba of Benin. Yet, Charles the Bald’s robes and throne tells the same story of power that the Oba’s position and belongings tell. His regal robes are adorned with gems, and his thrown is covered in jewels as well. Charles is surrounded by his sword and shield bearers, just like how the Oba’s retainer carries a broad ceremonial shield.

How were Justinian’s claims to be sole ruler of church and state challenged in the mosaic of San Vitale?

Justinian’s claims to be the sole ruler of Church and State may have been challenged by the bishop through the hierarchical scale and the position of the clergy. While Justinian is lavishly adorned in tablion robes and gold, which emphasize his individualism and power, the clergy rivals him not through extravagant clothing, but through their position and size. Justinian is sandwiched in the middle of soldiers and the clergy, displaying that he has power over both of them. Yet, while the soldiers are standing uniformly behind Justinian, the clergy stands behind the Bishop. Bishop Maximianus is directly beside Justinian to the right. If Justinian was the sole ruler of the Church and State, Bishop Maximianus and the clergy would be standing similarly to the soldiers. Justinian was an absent emperor, with no known presence in Italy. The hierarchy of scale is almost nonexistent in this work, with all of the figures similarly statured. Because this mosaic was made in Italy, the viewer can piece together why the figures are all the same size, rather than having Justinian be taller. A taller figure suggests supreme power over the other figures, yet Justinian and Bishop Maximianus fight for the viewer’s attention due to their height and position, similarly to how the Italian Church worked and fought to be set apart from Justinian’s reign.

#art analysis

Considering some stylistic features in artworks that contribute to the claim of divine kingship

Some stylistic features that contribute to the claims of divine kingship can be seen in the art of the ancient Middle East. Art of the Ancient Middle East is geometrically stylized, with an emphasized usage of repeated figures. Repeated figures can also be seen in the Roman Arch of Constantine. In the work Darius I holding an audience with Xerxes behind him, a larger than life portrayal of Darius’s power is exhibited. The geometric lines symbolize the strict rules and regulations Darius had the power of enforcing, almost as if naturalized lines and figures would give off the impression of a weak kingship. Art of the ancient Middle East utilized hierarchy of scale, meaning the more important figures were larger. This is seen in a vast amount of cultures, including ancient Egyptian art and Byzantine art. Usage of scale was vital when emphasizing divine kingship. The portrayal of an authority figure to be larger than a common man communicates that figure’s power visually, and can be understood without knowing the story behind the art. That can be seen in the mosaic Christ Crowning Roger II. Christ levitates slightly off the ground as he crowns Roger II and is taller than him. Yet, his size is significantly larger than Roger II so much that even if Christ was on the ground, he would still be taller.

#art analysis

Do myths and legends help you understand visual art? Which stories seem to call for the same figures or scenes?

Myths and legends do tend to help me understand visual art. A work of art that was once tough to decipher becomes easier to understand when one knows the story behind it. Unlocking the symbolic imagery is challenging in itself, and if I don’t know the possible symbols behind the art, I won’t be able to understand the work itself. The Aztec earth goddess Coatlicue is similar to the Greek Gorgon Medusa in their shared concept of a powerful yet repulsive woman. Snake imagery is used in both tales. Coatlicue has two serpents heads and Medusa has a head of snakes upon a human head.

Comparing and contrasting the representation of Buddha and Christ as time went on

Both Buddha and Christ were initially depicted through symbols, rather than through icon imagery. The depiction of Christ changed more noticeably as time went on compared to how Buddha was depicted. Christ has a humble beginning in the way he was portrayed. He initially was pictured as a human, rather than a deity. The Good Shepherd is a fresco that shows Jesus as a humble Shepherd, exerting no power through his naturalistic stance. Standing Buddha is a slate statue of Buddha that differs from the way Jesus was depicted. Greco-Roman influences are evident in this work due to the symmetrical stance and the subtle exertion of serene, yet evident, power. Later portrayals of Christ and Buddha are more similar through their godliness. Once Constantine formalized Christianity, the depiction of Christ as a human stopped. He was now portrayed in lavish robes often times, and the scenes he was pictured in now lacked the humanizing traits he had before. In The Good Shepherd mosaic, Christ tends to his animals in a symmetrical position, notably looking up and not at the animals. In Seated Buddha Preaching the First Sermon, Buddha is in a symmetrical position as well. He is supposed to be preaching to the people, yet his position tells more of his own self rather than telling the viewer of how he is engaging the audience with his preaching. This is similar to Christ, who in The Good Shepherd mosaic is said to be tending to the animals, yet the viewer is directed to concentrate on Christ himself.

#art analysis #art comparison

My reflection on Dread Scott’s Lecture

Upon seeing Dread Scott’s art at Tarble for their new exhibit “Dark Matter”, I immediately recognized his name because of the Dread Scott agreement. His name alone told me that he was an artist motivated to bring forth the unacceptable injustices people of color have to face living in the United States. During Scott’s lecture, his explanation of his art told a story of how a young man used inspiration from the Chicago hardcore and punk scene and his own experiences as a black man to create controversial pieces that evoked a nation wide response. As Scott has aged from an art student of the 80s to a matured artist of the 2010s, he has not lost his punk expressionism. Through utilizing various medias such as video, performance, and photography, Scott’s work brings alight the issues that may not be as real feeling to the privileged population of the US until presented in such formats. His work evokes mixed responses, from receiving occasional death threats due to outrage, to also receiving thank you’s from victims of the hushed oppression that he is bringing to the surface, Scott has touched and enraged the lives of many. He has a work titled The Impossibility Of Freedom In A Country Founded on Slavery And Genocide, yet all of his works reflect what that title explains. Despite the fact that he believes freedom and safety for America’s people of color, particularly African Americans, is impossible to achieve, he will not stop striving for it. That is a message that Dread Scott made particularly clear during the lecture.

All of the images displayed in this post are from his website www.dreadscott.net

#dread scott #black lives matter #blm #police brutality #black artist

Comparing and Contrasting Augustus of Prima Porta (20 BCE) and Kouros Youth (590-580 BCE)

Augustus of Prima Porta circa 20 B.C.E. and the Archaic Greek sculpture Kouros circa 590-580 B.C.E. are two works that differ variously, yet remain similar in their shared importance in art history. The Archaic Greek sculpture carved out of marble depicts a young, idealized, and ridged man with a stance reminiscent of Egyptian styled art. The Roman sculpture Augustus as General features a more naturalized, yet heavily idealized body of Augustus Caesar. Both the Greek Kouros sculpture and the Portrait of Augustus are freestanding marble statues that depict men of power, but the artist’s execution to symbolize their power is different. The nude Kouros male is stripped of his clothing to depict his power and to be a symbol of Archaic perfection, while Augustus is clothed in magnificent and Greek inspired amour with significant breastplate relief depicting symbolism for Augustus’s establishment of the Pax Romana. The Greek Kouros sculpture is geometric and symmetrical with the weight distribution equal on both legs to depict a stance not in motion, while Augustus’s stance makes the viewer believe they are seeing a moment in time, and that in a second his stance would be changed. His arm raised symbolizes the power he has over the Roman Empire, and his bare footedness is reminiscent of the representation of Roman Gods in classical iconography; the Kouros statue is also barefoot. With the weight distribution of the Kouros statue being equal, there is no need for extra support outside of the body. To depict Augustus in motion, the artist chose to have one leg raised instead of having it sturdily down, which then meant that the artist was sacrificing weight distribution and needed to bring around another source to have the statue hold up steadily. Next to Augustus’s leg is cupid on top of a dolphin, symbolically telling the viewers that Augustus has descended from the Gods, while simultaneously holding up the marble.

#art history #art analysis #roman art #greek art #archaic art

The Migration of the Negro, Panel no. 49

1. Identification & Artist Bio:

Jacob Lawrence. The Migration of the Negro, Panel no. 49. 1940-1941. Casein tempera on hardboard.

Jacob Lawrence was an African American painter, born in New Jersey with parents from the south. When he was 13, like many African Americans looking for new opportunities, his family moved to the north. They settled in Harlem, New York in 1930. Although the Harlem Renaissance was considered to be over once the Great Depression hit, Lawrence is often considered to be a product of the Harlem Renaissance during the 30’s and 40’s. He regarded his works to be “dynamic Cubism” despite his primary influences not being European like most Cubist Artists.

2. Description & Formal Analysis of Art: The works of this series only show essential imagery to get the point across. The forms in not only panel No. 49, but in all 59 panels feature angular forms, strong diagonals, and contrasts of light and shadow. Although Lawrence used limited color, the seemingly basic colors come together to form a focal point for the viewer's attention. In some panels, figures dominate the panel. In other panels like no. 49, the setting tells the story. The people are not individualized because of their flatness, lack of action, and facial expression. That was intentional.

3. Art Making Process (materials and technique): Panel no. 49 along with all of the other panels in the series consist of casein tempera paint applied to hardboard panels. A layer traditional gesso was applied beforehand. Lawrence made his own casein tempera, using unmixed dry pigments for the color. He left the pigments unmixed to keep the color consistency with all 59 of the panels. Lawrence painted each panel at the same time with all of them laid out on the floor to see what would later be a complete narrative. He worked systematically to apply one color to each, starting with black and moving on to the lighter colors to prevent from mixing the paints.

4. Content (subject/iconography): This panel shows a public restaurant in the North. Blacks and whites are divided by a yellow barrier that zigzags through the center of the painting. The yellow dividing line is emphasized by the tilted table tops and chairs situated against the background of the restaurant floor. Tables and chairs are placed to reinforce the diners' separation.

5. Original Context/Audience: The Migration Series was exhibited fully at Edith Halpert's Downtown Gallery, which was an art gallery that was predominantly populated by white spectators and white artists. In 1942, the series began a two-year tour around the US. Lawrence was the first black artist to be featured in this gallery, and for the rest of his life, he had to face being immersed within the primarily white mainstream artistic community while remaining true to his roots.

6. Intended Function/Purpose: The intended function/purpose really links in within the original context and audience. Panel No. 49 was captioned “They also found discrimination in the North although it was much different from that which they had known in the South.”. With this work being displayed within the white art gallery in New York, wealthy Northern whites that were racist despite not being from the south were outwardly told that they too had discriminatory and dehumanizing tendencies towards African Americans. The entire migration series was made by Lawrence to tell the story that over 1.6 million black people experienced. Those 1.6 million black people were African Americans moving to the north from the south expecting more opportunities, but were only welcomed with a different type of racism that was less outward and spoken about. 50 cardboard panels can be found within the migration series, and each panel spoke of a different experience that wove together a narrative once placed in order.

7. Thematic or Cross-cultural connections: Lawrence was slightly influenced by French cubist artists because of how he regarded his style. Although this was not intentional of Lawrence, I find similarities between him and Artemisia Gentileschi on how their works are critiques of society and the treatment of the less privileged. Gentileschi was less obvious with her message than Lawrence was.

Casa Batllo

1. Identification & Artist Bio:

Antoni Gaudi. Casa Batllo. Barcelona. 1904-1907.

Antoni Gaudi was an architect from Spain that practiced a specific type of modernism adapted by the Catalan people. Most of his works are found in Barcelona, and have a distinctive counter-industrial look with neo-gothic influence.

2. Description & Formal Analysis of Art: Some say that Gaudi had a goal of avoiding straight, pointed lines. That is very apparent through this building, along with the Casa Milá apartment building he constructed as well. The Casa Batllo is Art Nouveau in the broadest sense. The facade has three sections which are subtly integrated into one another. The lack of distinct lines helps contribute to that integration. The central part is a multicolored section. The uninhibited color that covers the facade is attributed to Gaudi’s use of broken mosaic tiles. From afar, the tiles are reminiscent of Monet’s flowers. Use of flowery decoration is common for Art Nouveau works.

3. Art Making Process (materials and technique): Trencadís is a type of mosaic used predominantly by Catalan Modernists. What sets this mosaic apart is that the pieces are purposely broken, rather than precise and complete. Gaudi covered the Casa Batllo in trencadis and ceramic pieces. The ground floor, the main floor, and the two first floors are contained in a structure of Montjuic sandstone with undulating and rippling lines. Above the central part of the facade is an iron balcony. Two iron arms near the balcony were installed to support a pulley for getting furniture into the building. The facade of the main floor is made in sandstone entirely. It is supported by two columns. The main floor contains joinery stained glass windows. Six fine columns can be found in front of the joinery windows. The loft of the building is unusual, containing over 60 catenary arches. Gaudi liked the aesthetic of the broken masonry, although it was broken on accident while transporting the materials. Gaudi asked that the pieces be stuck with lime mortar to the structure. It was held in place with a brass ring.

4. Content (subject/iconography): One thing that makes this building memorable is its likeness to a dragon. The roof is arched and is supposed to be the back of the dragon. The loft that holds the many white arches, not only supports the roof, but also symbolizes the ribcage of the dragon. The roof terrace represents the dragons spine using multicolored tiles. Beside the roof structure lies a triangle shaped window, which is supposed to be the dragons eye. The tiles of the roof and facade were given a metallic sheen to simulate the varying scales and sheen of the dragon. The metallic “scales” ranged in color from green on the right side, where the head begins, to deep blue and purple in the central area, to red and pink on the left side of the building.

5. Original Context/Audience: Lluís Sala Sánchez originally commissioned the building in 1877, but the Batllo family purchased it in 1900. The building was originally classical. It was an undesired building to purchase once it was on the market, but the Batllo family did not purchase it for looks. The family purchased it because it was in a fashionable and prestigious area. Originally, Josep Batllo wanted Gaudi to tear down and rebuild the house, but Gaudi promised that a renovation would be a cheaper yet sufficient solution. Josep Batllo gave Gaudi no instruction other than that he wanted the house to look unlike any of the other houses. The house was so impressive once it was completed in 1906, that the Barcelona city council nominated it for best building design. Although it lost to another piece of architecture, the Casa Batllo was still regarded as an architectural masterpiece.

6. Intended Function/Purpose: Originally, it was an apartment building. The Batllo family purchased it to be their own house in 1900, and it is still currently owned by the Batllo family, but it is not residential anymore. The Casa Batllo is now used to host important events for the city, and it could also be rented out for functions unrelated to the city.

7. Thematic or Cross-cultural connections: Islamic mosques often used tiles to decorate, but their tiles were arranged in intricate patterns, while these tiles are used more randomly. Byzantine influence can also be seen within this with the use of tiles once again.

The Nightmare

1. Identification & Artist Bio:

John Henry Fuseli. The Nightmare. 1781. Oil on canvas

John Henry Fuseli was predominantly a Swiss draughtsman, but also was known to paint. After being exiled from Switzerland for exposing a corrupt legal official, he traveled through Germany and made a permanent settlement in England. In 1770, Fuseli made a pilgrimage to Italy to study art. His works often depicted supernatural events.

2. Description & Formal Analysis of Art:

In the painting, a sleeping woman is portrayed stretched out in the middle of the work. Her being illuminates the area surrounding her, and the viewer’s eye is drawn to her drooping arm and lit body, which then leads the viewer to the darker incubus, red curtain, and horse head. Although the room in which the woman lies in is filled of luxurious curtains, the chiaroscuro of the painting darkens the space, making it seem negative instead of filled. The painting manages to be hectic but also subdued at the same time, distracting the viewer from the overcrowded background of shadowy linens and the dark horse head with the female light source. Like many romantic works, the lines Fuseli paints are softer and delicate, giving no hard edges to this painting.

3. Art Making Process (materials and technique):

Although he is not regarded as a Romantic colourist, meaning someone who is especially notable for their use of color, Fuseli utilized his oils with impressive skill to depict shadows and light. “The Nightmare” was made with paint in a form of dry powder, combined with turpentine.

4. Content (subject/iconography):

This painting depicts an elongated, erotic, and vulnerable woman asleep. She is draped upon her bed, covered in nothing other than a thin, bright nightgown that falls upon her body, leaving the soft feminine curves of her body exposed. Her head lies heavy over the edge of her bed, exposing her neck and leaving her neck unguarded from potential predators. The room she is in is contemporary for its time and holds a table with a book, phial, and mirror upon it. Emerging from the velvet curtains is the head of a black horse, or mare. Resting upon the sleeping woman is an incubus, which is a male demon that preys on sleeping women to commit sexual acts on. The creature peers at the viewer with a hard stare. In germanic folklore, incubuses are called mara and they ride on a sleepers chest, giving them nightmares. The horse head hints at the folklore behind the story of the incubus. During the romantic period, interest in the human conscious began to grow. Some argue that this painting depicts sleep paralysis because at the time, Western Europeans believed it was caused by incubuses sitting on one's chest. Others argue that the incubus is symbolistic for Fuseli himself, and the woman is actually a woman named Anna Landholdt, whom Fuseli fell in love with and proposed to but never married because the love was unrequited and her father did not approve. Other art historians argue that this painting depicts the female orgasm, and other subliminally repressed sexual urges. Fuseli’s history of drawing erotic situations are most likely the main factor for art historians to decipher “The Nightmare” as erotic, as well. The painting’s meaning is open to interpretation due to the fact that Fuseli never directly commented on how it should be viewed.

5. Original Context/Audience:

The Royal Academy of London exhibited “The Nightmare” and various Shakespeare-themed paintings also by Fuseli. John Boydell at the time was a renowned British publisher, and he also took great interest in Fuseli’s work. After “The Nightmare” was exhibited, Boydell commissioned Fuseli to paint eight paintings for his gallery. This painting was also converted into an inexpensive engraving by Thomas Burke that circulated England.

6. Intended Function/Purpose:

Fuseli was an artist that used his work to depict his emotions, which was common of romantic artists. Fuseli’s work was often very personal, openly stating that he painted or drew for himself. “The Nightmare” explores the human subconscious, as well as sexuality. Both the subconscious and female sexuality were taboo in European society at the time, and Fuseli addresses both of those topics in this work.

7. Thematic or Cross-cultural connections:

Fuseli's knowledge of art history was broad, allowing critics to propose sources for the painting's elements. Most of the elements of this work are classical, antique, and can also be seen in Italian Renaissance works. The pose the woman lies in is attributed directly to the Sicilian sculpture “Sleeping Ariadne”, which is a copy of a Hellenistic sculpture from the 2nd century BCE. The way the sculpture is carved to have her dress drape over her body as she sleeps is nearly identical to the painting. The incubus is modeled from terracotta figurines from the ancient Greek city on the southern coast of Sicily. The horse is said to be modeled from German Renaissance artist Hans Baldung, or to the marble horse tamers statue in Rome. Because of the artistic pilgrimage Fuseli made to Italy for three years after he devoted himself to art, Italian influence became much more apparent in his works.

Conical Tower and Circular Wall of Great Zimbabwe

1. Identification:

Conical tower and circular wall of Great Zimbabwe. Southeastern Zimbabwe. Shona peoples. c. 1000-1400 C.E. Coursed granite blocks.

2. Description & Formal Analysis of Art: The circular wall and the conical tower of Great Zimbabwe are made with tightly layered granite bricks, leaving little to no negative space in between the rocks. With a lack of sharp edges, a more natural, round wall is supposed to blend into the surrounding hills where the builders gathered most of their material. The texture of the walls are more rugged towards the bottom of the buildings to represent the boulders that can be found in the surrounding landscapes.

3. Art Making Process (materials and technique):

Great Zimbabwe's most notable remains are its stone walls. These walls were constructed from granite blocks gathered from the exposed rock of the surrounding hills. The surrounding hills gave many architectural resources to Great Zimbabwe’s society. Because granite naturally splits into even slabs and can be broken into smaller, more manageable sizes, the granite provided a convenient building material. The walls of Great Zimbabwe were constructed by laying stones one on top of the other, each layer going in slightly to produce a stabilizing inward I'm. This was an unusual, yet innovative way of constructing buildings. Most stone buildings of the time were built with mortar, which was a mixture of lime with cement, sand, and water. Parts of the walls that were built early were constructed using rough blocks and incorporated features of the landscape such as boulders into the walls. The technique was refined as the builders became more experienced, and later walls were fitted together closely and smoothly over long, serpentine courses to produce finished surfaces.

4. Content (subject/iconography):

The Parallel Passage goes onto the Conical Tower, which is 18 feet in diameter and is 30 feet in height. It is built between the old wall and the new Outer wall. It is decorated around the top with dentelle-patterned frieze. A frieze is a horizontal band of sculpted or painted decoration, usually on the top of a wall near the ceiling. In this case, the frieze is made of granite stone at the top of the circular wall. Visually and technically, the Conical Tower is the most important single feature of the entire site.

5. Original Context/Audience:

These walls were built for the people of the Kingdom of Mutapa. The Kingdom of Mutapa was a Shona Kingdom, meaning that it was comprised of the Bantu people. “Bantu people” is an umbrella term to label 300-600 ethnic groups in Africa who speak the Bantu languages. The conical tower was most likely built to worship the remote but supreme all creator god, Mwari. Mwari was a kind and generous god of a monotheistic religion. Although they were the creator of all things, Mwari was notably the god of rain and earth. The stones used to build the conical tower and circular wall are supposed to convey to the lower classes living outside of the enclosure that the rich and ruling classes are more similar to Mwari because of the hard pieces of earth that build where they live.

6. Intended Function/Purpose:

The Bantu Monomatapa kings that built Great Zimbabwe most likely used the circular wall and great enclosement as a political center where they governed their Kingdom. Great Zimbabwe was divided and ranked by the classes. The three most prevalent classes were the rulers, the owners of the cattle, and then the poor lower class. The enclosed walls only held around 100-200 people and were populated by the rich and powerful. Outside Great Zimbabwe lived the lower class in mud and stone huts.

7. Thematic or Cross-cultural connections:

Although the two cultures and pieces of architecture have extreme differences, I find similarities between the Great Wall of China and Great Zimbabwe. While Great Zimbabwe was being built and even after it was finished, one of the primary traders the Kingdom of Mutapa was involved with was China. In exchange for Chinese porcelain, The Kingdom of Mutapa would trade their precious metals. Both Great Zimbabwe and the Great Wall of China are composed of various earth materials and changed construction techniques as time went on. As the years went by and construction continued, the builders for both the Great Wall and Great Zimbabwe adapted more mature and effective ways of building.

Judith and her Maidservant with the Head of Holofernes

1. Identification & Artist Bio:

Artemesia Gentileschi. Judith and her Maidservant with the Head of Holofernes. 1625. Oil on canvas.

Artemesia Gentileschi was an Italian Baroque painter and is considered today to be one of the most accomplished artists of that time. She was the first woman to be accepted to be a member of the Accademia di Arte del Disegno in Florence, Italy. The content of her paintings were mainly female figures from various myths, along with the bible. Because Gentileschi was a woman, and because she was raped and went forth prosecuting the rapist (which was very unheard of at the time, her achievements were overlooked for generations. Today, she is known to be one of the most progressive and expressionist painters of the baroque period.

2. Description & Formal Analysis of Art:

Baroque art, although varying in content, repeatedly shares similar characteristics. Rich, deep colors, dramatic and unusual chiaroscuro, and condensed space appear most often in baroque pieces. Gentileschi uses all of these techniques in this work. With a dark, almost completely black background, the viewer is forced to pay attention to the women in the center. That technique is known as tenebrism. The little flame of the candle would realistically only bring light to the woman in yellow’s hand, but the extreme shadowing that the chiaroscuro offers enables the viewer to clearly see the entire woman in yellow, the woman below holding Holofernes’ head, and the red fabric above would have to come from a separate light source. Dark space around the women focuses the viewer's attention to the dramatic scene unfolding, and the bright colors accentuate the point that Gentileschi is bringing across.

3. Art Making Process (materials and technique):

On a linen canvas measuring about 6 feet by 4.5 feet, Gentileschi painted with oils. The canvas was thoroughly covered in gesso to prevent from the texture of the canvas to interfere or be visible once it was painted on.

4. Content (subject/iconography):

This painting portrays moments following the most well known scene from the Christian old testament Book of Judith. Judith (the woman in yellow) is shown alerted by a noise off-canvas as her and Abra (the woman below) are in the process of fleeing Holofernes’ tent. Holofernes was an assyrian general who was about to destroy Judith’s home town. Entranced by Judith, Holofernes invited her to his tent to seduce her. Judith accepted the invitation, but with intention of killing him. Holofernes passed out due to alcohol intoxication, and Judith beheaded him. This painting shows Judith and her maidservant minutes after the beheading, about to flee the tent with his head. It is widely believed by historians and is hinted at by Gentileschi herself that Judith in this painting is actually Gentileschi. Gentileschi’s self portraits look startlingly similar to Judith in this work and in Gentileschi’s other painting “Judith slaying Holofernes” which takes place before this work. Holofernes is said to symbolize Agostino Tassi, who was her former mentor and the rapist who she convicted. In “Judith slaying Holofernes”, Judith beheading Holofernes graphically symbolizes the rage and humiliation she felt after she publicly admitted that she was sexually assaulted by her mentor. This work is supposed to convey how attentive and vigilant she was after her reputation was ruined because of something that was out of her control, and that she had no remorse with accusing him of rape.

5. Original Context/Audience:

A majority of Gentileschi’s works were commissioned by the Medici family in Florence. Through her experience of being a woman, her paintings have interesting feminist perspectives. Paintings of the same content made by male artists often portray Judith as a confident and aggressive woman, yet Gentileschi makes Judith’s expression to be more worrying and neutral, which is much more realistic in this situation.

6. Intended Function/Purpose:

It was commissioned by the Medici family, but many of her works serve the purpose to only tell a story and be displayed. It is not an altarpiece and is not to be used in any highly religious setting despite its semi religious nature. Gentileschi takes a biblical story and nearly secularizes it.

7. Thematic or Cross-cultural connections:

High renaissance artist Caravaggio was a huge influence on baroque paintings. His chiaroscuro and deep, rich colors are reflected within this work.

Ruler’s Feather Headdress

1. Identification:

Ruler’s feather headdress (probably of Motecuhzoma II). Mexica (Aztec). 1428-1520 C.E. Feathers (quetzal and cotinga) and gold.

2. Description & Formal Analysis of Art:

This headpiece is 46 inches high and 69 inches across and has the form of concentric layers of different colored feathers. It is arranged in a semicircle to be worn. The smallest is made from blue feathers with small plates of gold in the shapes of half moons, inlaid with stones. Behind this is a layer of pink feathers, smaller green feathers, and an additional layer of white-tipped reddish brown feathers of the cuckoo. Leather straps attach the crown to the head of the wearer.

3. Art Making Process (materials and technique):

The smallest feathers are from the Lady Cotinga blue bird. The pink feathers seen behind those are from the pink flamingo. Next, the bright green feathers are from the Quetzal bird, which is native to the area. The remaining feathers are brown, red, and white, which can be found on the Squirrel Cuckoo bird. None of these birds today are currently extinct or even endangered. Feathered headdresses like this one was constructed with a woven netting to bring all of the feathers together. It is also lined with precious stones and gems, making the headdress worth over 50 million dollars because of the material objects within it and it’s historical significance.

4. Content (subject/iconography):

To the Aztec people, feathers were a sign of wealth and power. The only ones to wear feathered headdresses like this one would be the the upper class, the ruling class, and the various gods and goddesses. Feathers had a significant religious connotation to them because feathers came from birds, and only birds had something in common with the gods that humans lacked. Birds could fly, and so could the “Feathered Serpent”, which was the Aztec god of all creation. Wearing a feathered headdress was believed to bring those wearing it closer to the gods.

5. Original Context/Audience:

This was made to showcase the power to the Aztec civilians that the gods and kings held, along with the greatness that can be produced by the Aztec people to the Spanish settlers.

6. Intended Function/Purpose:

Some believed that this headdress was used by Motecuhzoma as he made his way into the civilian parts of his city-state to show the godly power he held. It is more widely believed that this headdress was a gift from Motecuhzoma to Spanish conqueror Hernan Cortes, who later would cause the downfall of the Aztec empire. With the headdress currently residing in Austria with historians unsure as to how it got there, most figure that after Cortes received the headdress as a gift, he sent it to Europe to Spanish King Charles I, later making its way to an Austrian noble.

7. Thematic or Cross-cultural connections:

Featherwork was also prevalent in Hawaiian culture. Hawaiian feather cloaks known as ‘Ahu ‘ula were worn by men in the highest Hawaiian social class. Feathered headdresses worn by the Aztecs were constructed similarly to the featherwork cloaks worn by Hawaiians, yet with very different colored feathers from birds that are native to the area. Featherwork in both cultures were worn to show high rank and power.

Entombment of Christ (Deposition of Christ)

1. Identification & Artist Bio: Entombment of Christ. 1525-1528 C.E. Oil on wood.

Jacopo da Pontormo was an Italian mannerist painter and portraitist from the Florentine School. His work starkly contrasts from regular Florentine renaissance works with his lack of calm perspectival regularity. He is famous for the subjects in his work to have a lack of gravitational limitation, often found floating in an uncertain environment. In his younger years, he lived with a series of famous renaissance men. The most notable man he lived with was Leonardo da Vinci. Most of his works were funded by Medici patronage.

2. Description & Formal Analysis of Art: Pontormo, like many late Italian renaissance artists, participated in the Mannerist era. Pontormo’s work “Entombment of Christ” is often referred to as "the poster child of mannerism" for its defiance of naturalism while also utilizing naturalistic techniques such as the shadowing and linear perspective. This being a mannerist work, it is very unlike the naturalistic paintings from the early and high renaissance with it’s lack of any background or scenery, along with the elongated bodies and anatomically impossible positions the figures are in. Only figures can be seen besides some ground and a cloud, which was never seen in early/high renaissance paintings or altarpieces. Symbolism found in inanimate objects are absent as well, but over dramatic and almost unnatural facial expressions symbolize the somber overall feeling this work displays. There is no focal point for your eye to rest on in order to showcase the hectic nature of the scene, which was also a common mannerist quality.

3. Art Making Process (materials and technique): This was a basic yet very large wooden altarpiece. Standing tall with a height of 123 inches and a width of 76 inches, this altarpiece was carefully painted with oils.

4. Content (subject/iconography): In a whirl of brightly colored fabric and bodies in motion, a heavy and pale dead body that is Christ rests atop unstable shoulders and in unsteady hands of another man. Christ’s legs are draped over the shoulders of a man on tiptoes, almost beckoning the viewer of the altarpiece to help carry Christ’s body that has been heavied with sin. Although this work is called “The Entombment of Christ” it is widely debated that this is Christ being placed in his tomb. With only the figures present and an absent tomb, many debate that this work is actually the deposition of Christ. “Deposition” meaning that this painting portrays Christ being taken off the cross. No cross is present, which is the reason why others argue it is his entombment. Mary is present in this work, and she can be seen slightly larger than the other figures. The position she is in along with her facial expression suggests that she is displaying the late medieval concept of "the swooning Virgin". Her near petrified face looks as if she is about to faint, and this was mostly popularized in the late medieval ages but can also be seen here. The theatrical lighting, the elongated limbs, and the over dramatic facial expressions are all typical of early mannerist works.

5. Original Context/Audience: A majority of the work Pontormo created was commissioned by those in the Medici family, yet it is unclear whether or not they were the ones to commission this work. Pontormo was mainly a painter of religious works, but he did paint a series of secular Medici family portraits. The audience for this piece were the ones who lived in the Florence Charterhouse, who all happened to be very religious in their beliefs.

6. Intended Function/Purpose: Now residing in the Capponi Chapel in Florence as it’s main altarpiece, this work was originally residing in the Florence Charterhouse. This charterhouse was a roman catholic monastery. While the Entombment of Christ is no longer in the Florence Charterhouse, other work by Pontormo can still be found there. With it’s obvious religious iconography, this altarpiece was meant to convey the raw suffering that Christ and the ones around him felt at the time of his death.

7. Thematic or Cross-cultural connections: Italian mannerist works often modeled their figures in their paintings from Hellenistic sculptures. Just like how mannerist art is referred by many as the transition period between naturalistic renaissance art and baroque art, the Hellenistic period is referred to as the transition period between the decaying Greek Empire and the emerging Roman Empire. Hellenistic art was quietly looked down upon because many believed that no one could rival the genius that was Grecian art, and Hellenistic art was proof that art quality was declining. The entombment of Christ was not anatomically correct, which vastly contrasted from early naturalistic works. Those who were enthusiasts of naturalistic art believed that mannerist art was lazy and was not reaching it's full potential.

Portinari Altarpiece

1. Identification & Artist Bio: Hugo van der Goes. Portinari Altarpiece (open). 1474-1476. Tempera and oil on wood panel. Van Der Goes was born in or near Ghent, Belgium. He was one of the most important Early Netherlandish artists.

2. Description & Formal Analysis of Art: In the three scenes, shading is attempted but is not completely accurate because of its dramatic nature. Perspective in the background scenes are more realistic than the perspective of the people. Some figures are large and others small, but that was intentional.

3. Art Making Process (materials and technique): The Portinari Altarpiece is a wood triptych, painted with tempera and oil. A triptych is a work of art divided into three sections that are hinged together, so it can be opened and closed. Some refer to the Portinari Altarpiece as the Portinari Triptych.

4. Content (subject/iconography): The central panel celebrates the birth of Christ, with baby Jesus laying on the ground surrounded by angels, shepherds, Mary, and more. Baby Jesus is surrounded by a golden ray of light. The holy family and shepherds have the most realistic and largest dimensions, while the donors and angels are smaller to portray a hierarchy of importance. The figures are arranged in a diagonal "X" shape with Mary's hands being the center of the work. In the front and center of the middle panned the still life - consisting of two vases of flowers and a sheaf of wheat - is a reference to the Eucharist and the Passion. The wheat symbolizes to the Last Supper, when Jesus broke the bread. The vines and grapes on the flower vase relate to the wine that was consumed at the last supper, as well. The white irises symbolize Mary's purity, while the orange lilies refer to the Passion. The red flowers symbolize the bloodied nails of Christ's cross. The purple irises and the stalks represent Mary's seven sorrows, more specifically the last three sorrows. The fifth sorrow is Jesus dying on the cross, the sixth is Mary receiving Christ's body and holding him, and the seventh sorrow is Jesus being placed in his tomb. As a whole, this scene of Christ's Nativity foreshadows the later Salvation which he achieves through his death. The side panels show the donating family and their patron saints. The background scene on the left is Joseph fleeing to Egypt with pregnant Mary. In the central panel, the shepherds are visited by the angel, and on the right, the Three Magi are shown on their way to Bethlehem.

5. Original Context/Audience: Between 1476 and 1478, Hugo van der Goes was commissioned by an Italian banker named Tommasso Portinari to construct a huge altarpiece. Portinari lived in Bruges, Belgium where he represented the Medici family bank. The altarpiece was made for a church in Florence. During this time, it was common for the artist to include the commissioner and his/her family in the piece that was commissioned for. In the central panel, the donors and their patron saints can be found. The members of the Portinari family are smaller than the saints in order to indicate their importance.

6. Intended Function/Purpose: An altarpiece is a piece of artwork, usually a painting or relief, framed and suspended behind the altar of a church. Tommasso Portinari commissioned for the Portinari Altarpiece as a celebration of his great financial success in Flanders. It was to be sent from Bruges (where it was created) to Florence, Italy. In Florence, the altarpiece would be installed on the high altar of St. Egidio church. St. Egidio church was the Portinari family's chapel. It was founded in 1288 by Floco Portinari, one of Tommasso Portinari’s ancestors.

7. Thematic or Cross-cultural connections: Similarities between the Portinari Altarpiece and the North Gate Torana in the Great Stupa at Sanchi in India might be coincidental because of how far apart in location and age the two pieces of work art are, but they cannot be ignored. Both were commissioned by the rich, which then they would be included within the work, and both the North Gate Torana and the Portinari Altarpiece were made depict religious scenes.

Salisbury Cathedral

1. Identification: Salisbury Cathedral, Salisbury, Wiltshire, England. 1220-58? West facade 1265; spire c. 1320-03; cloister and chapter house 1263-84.

2. Description & Formal Analysis of Art: With emphasis on verticality, this cathedral holds the tallest spire in England. Height was a major component in constructing cathedrals. Often times, the objective of building a cathedral was so Christians felt the presence of god on earth. The lines and pointed arches facing up point to the heavens. The use of space also accentuated the height. There are hardly any empty space in the exterior, but once one catches a glimpse of the spire, the height become more apparent.

3. Art Making Process (materials and technique): One unique aspect of the building process of the Salisbury Cathedral is that it was the first major cathedral to be constructed on unobstructed land, meaning that the architects were able to build exactly what they wanted. The piers of the cathedral were made of cut stone rather than rubble-filled drums, which could be found in earlier buildings. This stone method changed the weight distribution method for the structure. Those piers are decorated with slender columns of dark gray Purbeck marble. Purbeck marble can also be found in the supports of the triforium, clerestory, and cloisters. The triforium and cloisters contain patterns of stone shapes. Quatrefoils, cinquefoils, and even octofoils can be found. Originally, the design called for an ordinary square crossing a tower of unimpressive height. In the early 14th century, however, two stories were added to the tower, along with it’s iconic pointed spire. The cathedral had not been engineered to carry that additional weight, and eventually extra buttressing was required internally and externally. The transepts now sport masonry girders, or strainer arches, to support the weight.

4. Content (subject/iconography): Salisbury cathedral has a very tall and narrow nave. It also contains three levels consisting of a tall pointed arcade, an open gallery, and a small clerestory. Lined up between the pillars are the tombs of the half brother illegitimate son of Henry II. The frieze circles depict stories from the books of Genesis like Adam and Eve. The cathedral also displays the four-surviving original copies of the Magna Carta.

5. Original Context/Audience: It is now an Anglican cathedral. The religion of Anglicanism derives from the reign of Henry VIII. He wanted to annul his marriage in order to marry someone else and produce a male heir. The pope at the time denied his annulment which prompted Henry to separate from the Catholic Church and he formed a new church which would eventually start the Anglican religion. Therefore it reflects on the religion the people of England adopted.

6. Intended Function/Purpose: The cathedral was built as a result to some deteriorating relation among the clergy and military at Old Sarum Cathedral and was then moved to Salisbury. The church was paid generally by donations. People come here in order to practice their religion.

Bayeux Tapestry

1. Identification: Bayeux Tapestry. Romanesque Europe (English or Norman). C. 1066-1080 C.E. Embroidery on linen. Two images: Cavalry attack and First meal.

2. Description & Formal Analysis of Art: The Bayeux Tapestry is seventy-two scenes, or pictures, done about the time of the accession of William the Conqueror to the throne of England. The entire length of it is two hundred and fourteen feet with a width of about twenty inches. The upper and lower borders of the tapestry are filled with mythological creatures, lions, dragons, and scenes from Aesops fables.

3. Art Making Process (materials and technique): Although in the name of this piece is the word “tapestry”, the Bayeux Tapestry isn’t a tapestry at all. An early medieval tapestry conventionally consisted of a hanging cloth in which the design was woven into it. When one looks closer to the design, it is clear that the figures found on the cloth are sewn upon the cloth, rather that through it. This technique distinguishes it from a tapestry. The Bayeux Tapestry is embroidered in crewelwork, which is a type of crochet embroidery that uses wool. The embroidery is sewn upon a tabby-woven linen, which is the plainest and most basic linen that can be used. Tabby-woven linen is still used today. Backstitch embroidery was used for lettering and outlining of the figures, while couching and laid work were used to fill in the figures. Couching and laid work are techniques in which yarn is laid across the surface of the linen and secured in place with small stitches of the same or a different yarn. Backstick sewing is when individual stitches are sewn backward to the general direction of sewing. The main yarn colours found in the Bayeux Tapestry are terracotta or, blue-green, gold, olive green, and blue, with small amounts of dark blue/black and sage green. Later repairs used light yellow, orange, and light green yarn.

4. Content (subject/iconography): In a series of pictures with their interpretations supported by the written Latin commentary, the Bayeux Tapestry depicts the two historical figures Harold Godwinson, who at the time was the recently crowned King of England, and William, Duke of Normandy. Harold Godwinson can be seen in the tapestry leading the Anglo-Saxon English army, while William, Duke of Normandy, lead a Norman army. The people of the Norman Army are occasionally referred to as the companions of William the Conqueror. The story depicted on the tapestry climaxes at the Battle of Hastings. The first section of Bayeux tapestry illustrates the events leading to the Norman invasion and the Battle of Hastings. The second section scenes illustrate the preparations and the Norman Invasion fleet, and the third section illustrates the actual battle itself.

5. Original Context/Audience: It was most likely commissioned by the House of Normandy, thus featuring a Norman viewpoint. The fact that the tapestry depicts Harold’s activities in Normandy, it indicates the intent was to show a strong relationship between that expedition and the Norman Conquest, which occurred two years later. It is also believed that it could have been used as entertainment with Anglo-Saxons as the audience. It was also likely commissioned by Bishop Odo of Bayeux. It showed how the people of this culture wanted to keep documents of what was going on.

6. Intended Function/Purpose: Although historians are unsure of its purpose, many believe it to be a piece of Norman propaganda, displaying their power. It might have also been created to be a historical document, or a piece of entertainment for the Anglo-Norman aristocracy. It definitely served the purpose of telling stories and sharing histories of the time.

7. Thematic or Cross-cultural connections: Because of it’s resemblance to modern comics, the tapestry and it’s distinct style has been re-imagined in a variety of different pop culture contexts. The scale of the damaged land in the area surrounding Hastings can be seen in the figures in the Domesday book, a book which was used to determine the taxes owed during the reign of King Edward the Confessor. It wasn't given an official place to be exhibited until 1949. The art style resembles the flat drawings of ancient Egypt and ancient Greece.

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