A Facet into the Past

One dramatization of events through history

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“Wow, papa, is that really what happened?”

“No Joseph, not quite that way, but that’s how it will be told”

-Excerpt from YouTube channel Extra History’s video on Samuel HaNagid

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7 : Agamemnon’s First Orders

The Greeks have been scattered from the field at Chaeronea after Philip had excellently orchestrated a feigned retreat. Philip recalled his cavalry from pursuing the routing Greeks, and made sacrifices to the gods. To the many officers and men of particular gallantry that made the victory at Chaeronea possible, Philip praised and decorated with titles and prestige. Then began a great banquet in celebration, and in typical Macedonian fashion, there was a great amount of drinking.

In the heat of the moment, Philip took a tour of the battlefield with his officers. Though the victory was decisive, it had not been guaranteed. In his anxious relief over the outcome, he hurled insults at the Athenian dead and looked down on their cowardice in the field. As he walked, he saw the pile of dead where the Sacred Band of Thebes stood to a man. They were true Greek soldiers, it was a shame their discipline and bravery was rewarded with the annihilation of their unit. Philip more than anyone knew that the destruction of the strongest Greek fighting force of the time was important to winning the battle, but at the same time he felt sorrow at the waste of such talented life. His advisors watched nervously as he wept at the pile of Theban corpses, until he pulled himself together and resumed celebrations.

A diplomat arrived from the Greeks, approaching Philip cautiously as he caroused about the banquet grounds. He wanted permission to remove and bury the dead. Philip, raised his hand to shoo the herald away, but suddenly one of the prisoners (an Athenian orator named Demades) spoke up:

“King Philip, fortune has cast you as Agamemnon; but you seem determined to act the part of Thersites.”

Philip was taken back, grimacing at the idea of being compared to the ugly, dull-witted, and vulgar greek soldier in Homer’s The Illiad. He immediately ordered Demades released from captivity, and treated as an honored guest.

The Athenians had not taken the loss at Chaeronea lightly. They were so frightened for the future that they had taken to arming their slaves and foreigners in a last stand to defend their city to the death. However, instead of an army, Demades came with the terms of peace.

“The Greek dead will be given up. All 2,000 Athenian prisoners taken at Chaeronea will be released without ransom. Macedonia will not send her troops beyond the borders of Attica, nor will she send her ships beyond Piraeus. Athens will be given sovereignty over several Aegean islands, and a stronghold previously owned by the city-state of Thebes. However, Athens must renounce all claims of their ancient maritime imperial territory, and become a steadfast ally of Macedonia.”

A Bust of Demades, an Athenian Orator. (1)

With each sentence, the incredible disbelief of the Athenian assembly only grew. By all accounts, the Macedonians had them dead to rights, but Philip had offered the olive branch of peace instead for inconsequential claims to old land. The assembly immediately fell into an uproar, the response was universal: to accept Philip’s demands without hesitation. In sheer gratitude, Demades returned with official confirmation of Philip and Alexander’s Athenian citizenship, and word that a statue of Philip was to be built in the Agora.

And that took care of the Athenians. Thebes, however, was a different story. Thebes was still a formidable block of power in Greece, and even in this gracious peace Philip had to teach a lesson to discourage any rebellious ambition in the future. The heart of the Theban empire, the Boeotian League, would be dissolved by Philip. All the city-states that had previously been under the purview of Thebes was granted independence. All political exiles from Thebes were forced to be recalled, destabilizing Thebes itself from the inside. The current leadership of Thebes would be banished, and a Macedonian puppet government was established. All Theban captives would be ransomed back at exorbitant prices.

Encircled in red is the city-state of Plataea, one of the many city-states to be released from Theban influence and given Independence by Philip. (2)

After the treaties were agreed on, there was little doubt who had the power in Greece now. In commemoration, Philip commissioned at Olympia a large building crowned with bronze, gold, and ivory. Engraved into the building were pictures of himself, Alexander, Olympias, and Philip’s parents. This building would be called the Phillippeum.

With his face engraved in one of the most extravagant buildings in Greece, Alexander was all but confirmed to carry on Philip’s legacy. Given the title of Regent at sixteen and commanding Macedonia’s finest at eighteen, it seemed like the question of who would succeed Philip was set in stone. However, it would be mere months later when the stone will crack, and dark clouds would gather over Alexander’s future.

(1) - Image taken from: http://www.amirite.com/famousthoughts/author/demades

(2) - Image taken from: http://www.emersonkent.com/map_archive/plataea_ancient_greece.htm

Primary Sources: Plutarch’s “Plutarch’s Lives: Life of Alexander the Great”, Peter Green’s “Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C. A Historical Biography”

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6.5: Where’s Demosthenes?

Standing at the plains of Chaeronea along with his fellow men filled the Athenian with a sense of pride. Here is where the Macedonians fall, and their tyranny finally overthrown by the glorious Greek Hoplites. The city-states of Greece deserve their independence, and it will be without the iron fist of Philip that they will find their fate. With such a strong defensive position, the Macedonians will surely be beaten back, especially with the Theban Sacred Band ready on the right flank. With that in mind, Demosthenes watched with fair confidence as the Macedonians approached them.

It seemed like folly that the Macedonian line engaged at an angle. When the zealous Greeks threw themselves at the pikemen, it seemed like that decision would give the Greeks victory. The Macedonians buckled, giving away step by step up the hills behind them. However long the Macedonian pikes were, it didn’t seem to give them any tangible advantage by this battle’s standards. Empowered, Demosthenes surged forward with his brethren, as the general commanding the army ordered a passionate assault to drive the Macedonians back to their hovels. Swelling with confidence, he watched his fellow countrymen surge forward. Where were the Thebans? They stood motionless on the right. Their discipline will prove to be cowardly when the Athenians will take the field and show everyone that the Athenian Hoplite has not fallen out of date yet.

The Macedonians continued to retreat, until suddenly, the Greeks lost the battle. Nobody could see it but Alexander, that brat of the Macedonian King who ordered the cavalry charge. The Greek front line snapped, and suddenly Macedonia’s finest surged through the gap and surrounded the Thebans. Before the Demosthenes could recover, suddenly the Greeks were being shoved back by the thousand bristling Macedonian pikes. The retreat was feigned. Suddenly, like an unstoppable force, the Macedonians shoved forward in a counter-charge and ran over the Greek forces.

Demosthenes turned and ran, but suddenly he choked. A brush had caught his brilliant cloak he had donned for the battle, and he fell over. Turning around, he saw the spearheads of the Macedonians and his resolve crumbled. He raised his hand at them. “Take me alive!” he cried.

“Demosthenes, Demosthenes’ son, Paeonian, proposes --”

- A mocking jingle sung by the Macedonians to imitate Demosthenes’  motions during Athenian assembly

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6: The Battle of Chaeronea

Philip paced about in his tent, thinking on his next move. The Greek forces had him holed up in Elateia, in central Greece. Think as he might, Philip had no way to advance further into Greece without encountering one of two Greek armies that were dug into well-defended positions. If he wasted his time trying to break through one army, the other may have the time to maneuver and trap him into a position even less favorable than now.

It was time to go over the facts: The Greek Coalition had two forces-- One spread out to defend key passes in the north-west of Boeotia, and another mercenary force raised to defend the path into the Corinthian Peninsula to link up with what few Peloponnesian allies he had. Though he may be outnumbered, the two armies were separate. Perhaps unknown to Philip, he enjoyed one advantage. While the Athenians had the upper hand in the Sea, the Macedonian phalanx held their dominance on land. Blinded by the legends of Themistocles at Salamis and other heroic Greek successes of the past, the Greek coalition failed to realize that the hoplites of Marathon had long since faded. The time of the citizen hoplites of the Greek City States had passed, and many Greek armies were supplemented heavily by mercenaries. If Philip could lure the Greeks out of their entrenched positions into a level playing field, the Macedonians would take the day with ease. With that, Philip’s eyes lit up with the pieces of a plan.

Greek hoplites depicted on an aryballos, a container used to hold perfumes and oils.

Picture taken from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoplite

One night, the Greek mercenaries captured a Macedonian dispatch. After some strong encouragement, the dispatch revealed that rebellions had flared up in Thrace, and with Pella in imminent danger, Philip had withdrew his forces from Greece to deal with it. A wave of celebration ran through the men as the news spread. They had pocketed Athenian gold, and now they did not even have to spill their blood for it. They remained entrenched, as new orders from their employers had not arrived in reaction to the news, and security became lax.

Suddenly, in the dead of night, the 10,000 mercenaries guarding the passes to Amfissa were ambushed. The Macedonians smashed into the unsuspecting Greek forces, scattering them agains the walls of the pass. That was one enemy army dealt with. With that, Philip wheeled around and stormed toward the remaining Greek army guarding the passes. When word of Philip’s decisive move reached the Greek army, they knew the final showdown was at hand, Philip was going to run them out of the passes if they remained so thinly spread without reinforcements at hand. They withdrew from the passes, assembling at Chaeronea. There, their western, southern, and eastern flanks lay protected by the mountains. Philip was forced to make the choice of engaging them head on, or maneuvering around them and risk continuing his campaign into Greece with an assembled enemy force right behind him. It was 35,000 Greek soldiers from city-states all around Greece from Athens and Thebes, to Corinth and Achaea. Philip had 30,000 men, but was supported by 2,000 cavalry. Once more, Philip reached out to the Greeks to try and resolve this matter diplomatically. Once more, Demosthenes slapped the hand away. Both parties knew that it was at Chaeronea where the fate of Macedonia and the Greek City States hung.

Some time before, Philip sent for his son. This battle was important, and not only this, having Alexander participate would be an important stepping stone in his coming-of-age. The boy was eighteen, and as brilliant as he was, he was still unproven. Alexander felt the weight on his shoulders. Though confident on the outside, this was an important role he played in the battle that would decide Macedonia’s fate.

A map of Philip’s movements leading up to the battle of Chaeronea

Picture taken from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)

At dawn, both parties marshaled their forces. The Greeks arrayed themselves facing northwest; The Boeotian’s numbering at 12,000 held the right wing. In the front, the Boeotian’s were spearheaded by the legendary Theban Sacred Band, a crack hoplite force that crushed even the mighty Spartans at the Battle of Leuctra. On the left wing, the Athenians assembled 10,000 of their own hoplites. The center line was assembled with forces picked from the City-States of Achaea, Megara, Corinth, Chalcis, Epidaurus, Troezen, and further reinforced by 5,000 mercenaries.

Philip knew the biggest point of resistance would be the Sacred Band. The Athenians drafted their hoplites from volunteer citizens who had no experience, therefore were no match for his disciplined and rigorously battle-tested phalanx units. The goal of this battle was not just to defeat the Greeks, but to wipe out the Sacred Band as well. Philip put himself on his right flank along with his Hypaspists, a force of veteran lightly-armed men. In the center, the Macedonian Phalanx stood, a wall of spearheads facing the Greek forces. On the right flank rode Alexander himself, leading the heavy cavalry of Macedonia. With this cavalry, Alexander was entrusted to deliver the finishing blow that would win the day.

The battlefield was dangerous for Philip. If his advance stalled out, the Greeks could close on them, using their left wing as a pivot as the Theban Sacred Band pressed the Macedonians against the river and crush them. If the Macedonians broke through, the Greeks had ample space to fall back to nearby Lebadea and regroup. The battle would have to be executed perfectly for the decisive outcome that Philip hoped for. However, the time for planning was over, and Philip ordered the advance.

Battle Deployment of the Macedonian and Greek forces

Picture taken from: http://www.beastsofwar.com/historical-battles/ancient-battles/ancient-battles-changed-world-chaeronea/

Philip approached with his lines at an angle. With him at the right wing, he engaged the Athenian Hoplites while most of his lines were still a small distance away, still approaching the Greek lines. The long spears of the phalanx came into contact with the Athenian shields, and din of battle grew from what had been hot-blooded taunting and shouting. The Athenian men could not control themselves, and rushed to engage Philip, slamming into his pikes. The Greek center followed, charging after the raw Athenian wing into the fray. However, the iron discipline of the Sacred Band and Boeotians left them standing alone, waiting for the next move of the Macedonian king. Spears banged off each other, and the cries of wounded men permeated the sound of combat. Suddenly, new orders were given. The Macedonian right wing began to give away. The powerful Macedonian phalanx was giving way to the Athenian hoplites. Stratocles, the Athenian general, became emboldened. “Charge!” He shouted, “Come on, let’s drive them back to Macedonia!” The Greek lines surged forward, shoving against the hedgehog bristles of the phalanx sarissa pikes.

Step by step the Macedonian lines were driven back, up the banks that outlined the nearby river. The lines of the Greeks, stretched dangerously thin as they clambered past each other in order to continue driving back the Macedonians.

Suddenly, the lines snapped, a gap opening up where the Theban-Boeotians wing ended and the Greek center line began. This was the tipping point of the battle. With a mighty battle cry, Alexander lead the Companion cavalry thundering down the plains of Chaeronea. Flooding through the gap, Macedonia’s finest slammed into the shield and spears of the Sacred Band. A second cavalry division swirled past the clash of men and horse, and swept into the flanks of the Thebans. The elite hoplite force of the Greek coalition was now entirely surrounded.

Confusion rippled down the Greek lines. So caught up in pressing the Macedonian right wing back, they had become scattered and unorganized. The noose had tightened, and now there was no escape. Not to be outdone by his son, Philip ordered a counter-charge, and the Macedonians broke off the feigned retreat. The Hypaspists and Phalanx began to push forward, an unstoppable juggernaut against the shocked Greek forces. The Greek army began to disintegrate, the raw Athenian recruits losing their nerve and fleeing the field of battle. The broken Greek lines fell apart and the battle turned into a full rout. A thousand Greek soldiers were killed, and two-thousand were captured. The rest managed to flee, but the 300 men in the Sacred Band of Thebes was surrounded. The steely-discipline of the Theban wing compared to the unruly Athenians had cost them the battle, and now the Thebans paid for it. The greatest warriors of Thebes stood and fought to a man, and though they fought valiantly, forty-six of them were eventually taken alive and the rest were cut down.

A picture of the Lion of Chaeronea in 1914, a statue erected in honor of the Sacred Band of Thebes destroyed by Philip.

Picture taken from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Band_of_Thebes

The battle was over. The Greek forces had been scattered, and the Sacred Band, the mightiest warriors the city states could muster, had been utterly annihilated. Philip now had control over the Greek city-states, and what he would do would decide the fate of both them and Macedonia itself.

Primary Sources:

Plutarch’s “Plutarch’s Lives: Life of Alexander the Great”, Peter Green’s “Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C. A Historical Biography”

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5.5: The Worries of a Mother

Olympias walked down the halls of her estate with a tense gait. Several times she has made laps throughout the royal household in Pella, worrying over her son. Alexander was a gifted boy, and finally had his chance to prove himself in a big way by becoming Regent of Macedonia while his father was away. However, the lack of manly qualities was concerning. His attitude and traits alone did not lend to the appearance of a strong leader that Philip was.

Alexander did not exhibit any of the tendencies toward sexual carousing like most men, and he preferred to practice medicine and debate. As bright as the crown prince of Macedonia was, this was no reassurance to the nobility and unrest would certainly rise up in unceasing waves once Philip died.

Something must be done. Olympias called forward an aide, and described the task she had in mind for him to carry out.

Alexander receives his mother, who comes in with a beautiful courtesan, almost blinding and drawing stares from anyone passing by. “This is Callixeina of Thessaly, my son.”  Olympias says. “I ask that you take her.”

Alexander is aghast, though he takes only seconds to recover and become resolute. “I will do no such thing!”

Olympias pleads, “My son, you lack the qualities of a man, I fear for you-- how can you hold the throne if people will think you’re weak and effeminate?”

Alexander gives his mother a thin, cocky smile. “I will make them change their minds when I bring them all of Asia as a gift. Now send her away.”

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5: The Hubris of Demosthenes

With Philip’s trusted advisor Antipater, Alexander now would get his first taste of rulership with his father off cutting the rot of betrayal and rebellion from Macedonia. His calm days of schooling were over. Philip could have very well sent his ever-loyal general Parmenio to deal with these incursions and deal with the administrative problems of state in Pella, but here we see Alexander’s father test Alexander in a trial-by-fire. Spurred on by fears of Alexander’s lack of masculine traits as defined by the cultural standards of Macedonian men at the time, Philip and Olympias both feared for their son who showed a lack of interest in sexual carousing among other things.

However, Alexander the regent was not to be trifled with, and there was nothing feminine about his actions. To the north, the Maedi that live on the border of Paeonia and Thrace rebelled, seeing Macedonia as weak with their powerful King absent on campaigning. It would disappoint the Maedi to realize that Alexander was many things, but weak was not one of them. Sweeping forward with an assembled expeditionary force, he smashed the rebellion and captured their home city. In his endeavors to be what his father is and more, Alexander converted it into a military outpost to retain influence in the region, and renamed the city to Alexandropolis after himself. Though it was just a mere military colony, and Alexander was within his rights to do so as acting regent of Macedonia, this nevertheless raised warning flags in Philip’s mind- such an act was rebellion in of itself. Only a fool would dismiss such an act when considering Alexander’s insatiable ambition fostered by his doting mother.

A Map of the Macedonian and Northern Greek regions of the Balkans; The lands of the Maedi can be seen in the upper right quadrant of the map.

Picture taken from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maedi

Despite this, for the time being Philip remained in intimate contact with Alexander. His letters to Alexander were full of advice, parental and state-wise. For his situation, he advised Alexander make as many friends among the nobility as possible to give stability to his short regency. For his friends and enemies, he should “use the former and abuse the latter”. For his methods, Philip quickly and harshly admonished his son for trying to bribe everyone, asking “What on earth gave you the deluded idea that you would ever make faithful friends out of those whose affections you had bought?”

Life went on. Alexander received word that his father’s campaigning was going poorly. Philip had even been ambushed by the Triballi from Thrace, the ensuing battle leading up to a loss of all the plunder gained from raiding the north, and Philip with a permanently crippled leg after receiving a vicious spear thrust in his thigh. With Athens harrying the Macedonians with naval superiority, Philip realized that the decisive engage must happen on land where the Macedonian phalanx held the advantage.

In 339/338, the Athenians received word of Philip’s march on the Greek city states. It was pandemonium. Philip had publicly declared he was marching to Amfissa, but instead marched on and occupied a different city, Elateia. This put Philip in control of the road connecting two main cities of the Greeks-- Thebes and Attica.

The region of Boeotia (highlighted in red), is where Philip and the Athenian Coalition clashed in 338 BC

Picture taken from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeotia

Demosthenes, ever patriotic and anti-Macedonian, stepped up and roused the Greek city-states into a coalition against the Macedonian king. An Athenian army was raised, and marched into the region, fortifying the passes to bottle up Philip and his army, keeping him from meeting up with his allies to the south. Philip proceeded to make no moves, taking winter in Elateia.

Demosthenes was congratulated, awarded gold and honors galore for apparently halting the Macedonian king into inaction. This level of extravagant congratulations almost lends itself to turned tables, and Demosthenes wouldn’t realize that he would be playing straight into Philip’s hands. With all the patriotic bravado he could muster, Demosthenes proposed that he would be able to stop Philip on land with this strategic advantage attained.

Bust of Demosthenes, famed Athenian Orator and Statesman

Picture taken from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosthenes

However, the fact was undeniable that the Athenians had effectively stopped Philip’s progress into Greece. The Macedonian King’s next moves would be crucial to the outcome of this war. Thebes and Athens had cut Philip from being able to navigate Boeotia, and an army of Greek mercenaries was raised to fortify Amfissa. Even with the powerful Macedonian army, one wrong move would bring down everything he had worked so hard to build up. The decisive encounter was quickly approaching, but Philip has proven himself to be a wily leader. He still had a few moves to make to tip the scales.

Primary Sources:

Plutarch’s “Plutarch’s Lives: Life of Alexander the Great”, Peter Green’s “Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C. A Historical Biography”

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4: Companions in the Gardens of Midas

Alexander strode quickly into the hall in his home at Pella. He had grown into a strong young man, no doubt thanks to Leonidas and his relentless physical discipline. Aristander’s words seem to be coming true, his unkempt hair framing his head like the mane of a lion and his hetereochromatic eyes flashed with relentless conviction though he behind it he had charm that could melt the most frozen of hearts. His father, Philip awaited him with a smile, as Alexander acknowledged his father and asked why he was summoned.

“My son, I have found you a tutor” said Philip. Alexander scoffed at the idea of yet another teacher, but Philip wasn’t done. “You will take up your classes under one called Aristotle at the Precinct of the Nymphs at Meiza.”

Philip had realized the dangerous political intrigues in court and the constant meddling of his doting wife would be nothing but a negative influence on the young Prince’s stage in development. At the Precinct of the Nymphs at Mieza, Alexander could be taught in rural solitude without the distractions of aristocratic life.

Mieza, located in modern day Náousa, Greece

Picture taken from http://makedonia-alexandros.blogspot.com/2012/10/alexanders-schooling-at-mieza-and.html

“Father, why do I need yet another teacher? With all due respect, I know quite enough as it is.” Alexander protested respectfully.

Philip’s face became solemn before he responded, “It is so that, you may not do a great many things of the sort that I am sorry to have done.” Though this was Philip’s answer to Alexander’s protests, both knew that if Alexander did not prove himself, Philip and his polyamorous lifestyle had many other illegitimate sons to replace Alexander with. This gnawed at Alexander, who constantly worried about his security as the heir to Macedonia. Though Alexander would voice these concerns, Philip would brush them off. “Well then, if you have many competitors for the kingdom, prove yourself honourable and good, so that you may obtain the kingdom not because of me, but because of yourself.” He replied.

In the end, he conceded. In the rural area of the Nymphs at Mieza, he would spend his days with Aristotle, but not alone. With him came his lifelong friend Hephaestion; Cassander, son of Antipater, and Ptolemy, son of Lagus; and Marsyas of Pella. Aristotle, with all the Greek xenophobia he could muster, taught his students about Greek superiority. Anyone who was not Greek was a barbarian, and anyone who was a barbarian deserved-- no, was by nature a slave. He advised Alexander to be a ruler to the Greeks, but a tyrant to the barbarians. It could be believed that Alexander was rather disgusted by Aristotle’s unabashed xenophobic worldviews, when we reach later parts of the young prince’s story. In an interesting tangent, Aristotle regarded the hedonistic tendencies of the barbarians to be beyond contempt, that living exclusively for pleasure made one utterly servile as expected of the barbarians.

Bust of Aristotle, famous Greek philosopher and scientist

Image taken from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle

Aristotle’s students also learned much about biology and medicine, which Alexander took a particular liking to. So obsessed with the art of medicine was the young prince that not only did he study it passionately, he practiced it at every opportunity-- even on his friends. Not just the sciences did Aristotle spend those days teaching his students, but poetry and debate. Alexander also took to eristics with an eager attitude, the art of being able to objectively reason and argue was fascinating to the young prince and he quickly became adept at it. Soon, his aptitude for reached Isocrates, who nervously penned a letter to Alexander. Receiving the letter, the Macedonian prince reads the thinly veiled warning about the problems with being so impassioned with debate. “A prince’s part is not to persuade, but to command” wrote Isocrates. Alexander scoffed at the letter and tossed it aside.

“A man ready to speak pro and con was clearly a false person who proved that he was a good liar.”

-Demosthenes, Athenian Orator

As the Macedonian heir to the throne enjoyed a peaceful education at the Precinct of the Nymphs at Mieza, the situation in Pella was beginning to boil. Tensions in Thrace were escalating. Philip had planted military colonies across his northern border, and in response Athens sent a man called Diopeithes to the now modern-day Gallipoli area to “safeguard Athenian interests”. Isocrates tried to placate both sides and suggest a Macedonian-Athenian alliance, but things were moving too quickly.

Philip saw no distinction between summer and winter seasons when it came to campaigning, something that Demosthenes notes when discussing Philip’s movements. If Philip captured Byzantium, a city overlooking the strait connecting the Aegean Sea to the Black Sea, Philip would effectively be able to cut off Athenian grain supplies and give him economic control over Athens.

The Greek colony Byzantium was located where the Eastern Roman Empire would make their administrative capital, Constantinople.

Image taken from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantium

This would not do, Philips aggression must be put into check. The Greeks had to put aside their differences and form a Hellenic League. They sent a secret envoy to the Great King Artaxerxes III, and it met disturbing success. The Great King declared open hostility to Macedonia, shaking the country and her political alliances to the core. Word that the Achaemenids were sending gold to the Greeks to bribe Philip’s allies to turn on him. Macedonia’s allies Byzantium and Perinthus flatly declined Philip’s call for help. Macedonia now faces a crisis arguably worse than the situation Philip came upon when he first ascended to the throne. It was time to act, and act quickly before this traitorous disease could spread. Philip quickly penned a letter with a heavy heart, summoning his son back to Pella after three long years of tutelage under Aristotle.

In the courts of Pella, he formally appointed Alexander the official Regent of Macedonia and Master of the Royal Seal. With the guidance of his advisor Antipater, Philip readied for war.

Primary Sources:

Plutarch’s “Plutarch’s Lives: Life of Alexander the Great”, Peter Green’s “Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C. A Historical Biography”

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3: The Crusader and the Enemy across the Aegean

When Isocrates wrote his “Address to Philip”, he was hoping that he would take up the altruistic mantle of a leader of a pan-hellenic crusade against Persia. Effeminate, weak, full of wealth waiting to be taken! What glory it would bring, what prestige! Most importantly, it would bring the Greeks back to prominence ending the Persian threat as it pressed on the eastern Aegean Sea.

Philip read the address, flattered that he would be asked by such an esteemed rhetorician, but knew that this was his chance. A casus belli against the Persians that wouldn’t label him as an aggressive warmonger to his southern Greek neighbors, what an opportunity! Even before he received this address, numerous rebels and exiles from the Achaemenid regime saw Philip as a liberator and leader. And for the Great King Artaxerxes III Ochus of Persia, that just wasn’t going to do.

A Bust of Isocrates, one of the 10 Attic Orators

Picture taken from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Afbeelding_van_Isocrates..jpg

Artaxerxes wasn’t an idle ruler. He moved like lightning, and was as uncompromising as he was bloodthirsty. To secure his legitimacy and the stability of his throne, he had all his relatives killed without regard for age or gender. To stave off internal incursions, he had his tributary states known as satraps disband their mercenary armies. Artaxerxes made sure that he would not be easily trifled with. For a while, the provinces of Egypt had seceded from the Persian Empire, controlled by a rebel group. In a demostration of Achaemenid might, Artaxerxes marched down with a great army bolstered by Greek mercenaries. The Egyptians begged the Greek world for help, and the powerful city-states of Thebes and Argos offered assistance.

However, at this point the might of the Achaemenids had stunned some into fearful inaction. Athens and Sparta abstained from sending aid. Isocrates, the stalwart supporter of a mighty crusade against the Persians had fallen silent. Even Philip, a champion of anti-Persian resentment, hesitated. Philip weighed the odds, and decided securing his borders and keeping the wily Greeks in check was worth more than gaining their favor by making a hasty decision to support the Egyptians. He negotiated a non-aggression pact with the Persians, after watching Artaxerxes sweep into Egypt and crush all resistance within the year.

The Tomb of Artaxerxes III at Persepolis

Picture taken from http://www.historytoday.com/george-woodcock/persia-and-persepolis-part-i

The situation at home was better, but not by a significant amount. Alexander, to put it in nice terms, was getting slightly out of hand. Now at the age of thirteen, the boy needed a mentor that could supervise the first-class education of the ancient world he needed.

There was a man who lived Atarneus, a city that stared at the island of Lesbos from the coast of Asia Minor. An eccentrically dressed man, he spoke with a lisp and was balding. On his fingers sparkled numerous rings, and was the connection between Philip and Hermeias, the ruler of Atarneus and a conspirator with Philip to allow his armies a secure bridgehead into Persia when the time came. He stayed in Atarneus when Hermeias retreated to Lesbos after falling under Persian suspicion. He kept watch on Persian activities while he studied, taught, and researched.

It was the winter of 342 when a messenger reached him. How odd, normally these things would be forwarded to Hermeias. Opening the note, he saw that it was from the King of Macedonia himself. An offer, to cross the Aegean and teach his heir to the throne. The man continued reading, and his eyes widened. As incentive to make the journey and be the personal tutor to Alexander, his hometown of Stagira would be restored and all the citizens who had been taken into slavery or had been exiled would be recalled.

Aristotle immediately rushed home, began to pack, and wrote his response.

Primary Sources:

Plutarch’s “Plutarch’s Lives: Life of Alexander the Great”, Peter Green’s “Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C. A Historical Biography”

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“Have you any idea

What we’re like to fight against? Our sort makes their dinner

Off honed-up swords, and swallow blazing torches

For a savoury snack. Then, by way of dessert,

They bring us, not nuts, but broken arrow-heads

And splintered spear-shafts. For pillows we make do

With our shields and breastplates; arrows and slings lie strewn

Under our feet, and we wreathe our brows with catapults.”

A surviving fragment of Mnesimachus’ propaganda play, “Philip”, where a Companion describes himself and his group.

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2: Leonidas, Phoenix, and Bucephalus

“Wake up! You lazy piece of meat!” came a familiar, aged voice.

Alexander opened his eyes, internally and half-heartedly cursing. It was morning yet again, and one of his teachers had come to wake him up. A kinsman of his mother, the crabby old man sternly shouted at Alexander to deny him any prospect of sleeping in. The old man kicked at the chest at the foot of Alexander’s bed roughly, then bent over slightly and popped it open without the young noble’s consent.

“Don’t bother Leonidas, my mother isn’t in this room” Alexander quipped grumpily. Turning in his bed, he tried to get just a few more moments of shut-eye.

Eyeing the contents of the chest, the old man nodded slightly and continued to grouchily rouse Alexander from his bed. The highly-doting Olympias had been firmly kept in her place when it came to this man. The disciplinarian’s name was Leonidas, and as Alexander himself would say, his idea of breakfast was a long night-march -- and for supper, a light breakfast. As a free-spirited, almost indomitable boy, Alexander would often clash against Leonidas, who placed feats of strength and endurance in high regard when training his student. He set Alexander on rigorous training courses, an almost hellish experience for the seven-year-old Macedonian heir. Despite this, Alexander begrudgingly obeyed. Despite the constant friction between Leonidas, the training would prove to be very useful for Alexander, who would lead his men on long forced marches across Asia minor.

Aristotle Tutoring Alexander, by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris

Aristotle was one of Alexander’s many teachers, and we shall tell this story in due time.

Picture taken from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great

Alexander bent over, exhausted from the long morning’s exercise that Leonidas had dealt him. Struggling to catch his breath, he saw the old man take his leave for the moment. Passing Leonidas was someone that Alexander brightened at the sight of. Straightening, he greeted Lysimachus of Acarnania. The shrewd sycophant had wormed his way into the position of being the teacher of Alexander by entertaining the young Macedonian’s dreams of fame and glory. He called himself Phoenix, and liked to call Alexander “Alexander Achilles”. Fancying himself as Phoenix, the mentor of Achilles in Homer’s The Illiad, he taught Alexander the ways of music, reading, and writing. Lysimachus smiled as he taught Alexander. The boy showed great aptitude for the Lyre, and as the boy plucked on the strings, Lysimachus saw the great potential in him not just as a front to gain Alexander’s favor. But soon, Lysimachus’s time was also up and he too would leave until next time in lieu of yet another one of Alexander’s teachers.

Many experts on combat taught Alexander, from the sword, to archery, to javelin-throwing. Most importantly, he learned how to ride a horse like the rest of Macedonian aristocracy. In horse-riding, Alexander proved to be quite adept as well. It would be one year later, in the year 347 B.C where this is exemplified.

During the Olympian games hosted by Alexander’s father Philip, a Thessalian horsebreeder by the name of Philoneicus brought a well-bred stallion to the King of Macedon. “This fine steed shall be yours for the sum of thirteen talents, you won’t find a better horse anywhere else!” He said. As a quick aside, thirteen talents would have been able to pay a man’s life expenses for one-hundred years at the time, to exemplify the horse’s pedigree. The horse was a sleek black, with only a splash of white on it’s forehead and the brand of an ox-head to denote Philoneicus’s ranch. The horse’s name was Bucephalus.

The Taming of Bucephalus

Picture taken from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucephalus

Philip considered this, and decided to test Bucephalas’s mettle in the nearby open plains. Along with Philip trailed his attendants and friends, but also Alexander too. As they reached the plain, they tried to control the horse, but it was quickly realized Bucephalus was simply too unmanageable. Nobody seemed to be able to calm or mount the horse, attendant and friends of Philip were thrown from the animal as it thrashed and whined. Philip had enough of this embarrassment. In a fair rage, he demanded Philoneicus take this rebellious horse away. Alexander, who had been watching this unfold could not control himself anymore.

“What a horse they’re losing!” He muttered indignantly, “And all because they haven’t the skill or courage to master him!”

Philip heard this, his rage subsiding slightly to be replaced with bemusement. “Oh? So you think you know more about managing horses than your elders, do you?” He snapped.

Alexander remained resolute. “Well, I could certainly deal with this horse better than they’ve done.” He sneered confidently.

Philip’s surprised turned to interest, and his eyes flashed at his son as he made these bold claims. “All right, then. Suppose you try, and fail, what forfeit will you pay for your presumption?” he asked, testing Alexander’s boldness.

“I will pay the price of the horse.” Alexander replied, without hesitation. A brief pause of surprise, then Philip and his entourage laughed.

“Done.”, Philip said, his voice taking on a serious tone. This was no false wager. Either Alexander proved he wasn’t bluffing or he’d be gone working off Bucephalus’s price tag for a long time. However, Alexander wasn’t just all talk. Rushing over to Bucephalus, he seized the bridle and turned the horse toward the sun as it slinked across the sky. Patting his head, Alexander offered calming words to the distressed stallion, and it responded in kind. The buckling and shaking slowed to a stop. With a great motion, Alexander threw off his purple cloak of Macedonian nobility, and leapt onto Bucephalus. With a snap of the reins, Bucephalus thundered down the plains to the absolute shock of Philip, his entourage, and Philoneicus. Wheeling around after some distance, Alexander rode the stallion back toward the wild and cheering men. As Alexander dismounted, Philip rushed over. With tears in his eyes, he kissed his son. “You’ll have to find another kingdom; Macedonia isn’t going to be big enough for you!” he cried, full of pride. One of Philip’s group, Demaratus of Corinth, was so impressed at the feat that he purchased the horse himself as a gift to Alexander. From then on, Alexander and Bucephalus were all but inseparable.

From George Simon Winter’s Bellerophon, the New treatise on equestrian topics

Picture taken from http://swiss-artists.com/prints/Horses/bucephalus.html

Primary Sources:

Plutarch’s “Plutarch’s Lives: Life of Alexander the Great”, Peter Green’s “Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C. A Historical Biography”

[discipulus-historicus-blog]

1: The Enfant Terrible of Pella

Philip II of Macedon rests with his army in a town called Potidaea, a town along the coast of the Aegean Sea. The Greek citizens of the city give contemptuous looks at Philip as they walk past, though always when him and his men weren’t looking. When the Macedonian army beset themselves upon the Greek city, the denizens knew they had no other choices but to surrender, or die. It wasn’t hard to pick out Philip and his famous Macedonian Companions from the crowd, they wore proud purple cloak and broad-brimmed hat of the Macedonian nobility. As the Macedonian army celebrated and drank over their most recent acquisition to the mighty Macedonian realm, a messenger arrives.

“My king! Great news!” He cries. Philip puts down his drink as the chatter of his companions fall away. “Her lady has given birth to a son! She deems his name to be Alexander!”

There was a brief pause of shock before Philip exploded in jubilation. “Oh Fortune,” Philiip begged, “please do me some disservice, to offset these overwhelming favors you have bestowed upon me!” For you see, not only did Philip secure a legitimate heir to Macedonia, he had also received word from one of his trusted generals Parmenio that he had conclusively defeated the Illyrians and Paeonians to the west and north respectively, his racehorse he entered into the Olympic Games has taken first prize, and he had taken Potidaea for himself not hours before. in all the celebration, the days of fear and suspicion back before Alexander was conceived seemed like a thing of the past.

Philip shuddered internally, recalling the dream he had a month or so after he and Olympias were wed. Floating in an abyss, he single-mindedly sealed his wife with wax, and stamped it with the print of a lion. His fears of this had been calmed somewhat, by a famous Greek Seer called Aristander of Telmessus. Phillip smirked slightly, remembering what Aristander had replied with when Philip told him of his dream. “Your wife must be pregnant with a boy as courageous as a lion, my King. There’s no point in putting a seal on an empty jar, is there?”

Coincidentally, his wife Olympias also had a dream. In her sleep, she felt herself be penetrated by a great bolt of lightning, so powerful that flames gushed from her womb and raged far and wide before it burned out. It appeared that nobody could make conclusive sense of this foreboding dream, made only more suspicious by news abroad that the Temple of Artemis in the Achaemenid Empire (also known more popularly as the Persian Empire) to the east had burned down. Perhaps, as one great man would remark, that Artemis was too busy with Alexander’s delivery to save her burning temple. After all, Alexander had ties to Hercules on his father’s side, and had his lineage traced back to the mighty hero of the Trojan War, Achilles on his mother’s side.

Alexander proved to be quite the controversial youth. Macedonia’s aristocratic life did not treat innocence well when one observes the almost constant political struggles, gluttonous and Bacchic feasts, and casual sexual mischief. Philip would be a vague presence in Alexander’s life, as he was always off campaigning and strengthening Macedonia. His feats would earn the undying admiration of his son, but would also drive Alexander to try for greatness Philip would never have thought about attaining. His mother doted on him terribly, spoiling him almost rotten, if it were not for his iron-fisted tutors. She nurtured his ambition, stopping at nothing to make her son believe in his fantastic destiny he was always meant to achieve. He grew to be a shrewd boy. Copying the formalities of aristocratic etiquette, his experience would come to a head in one of his most famous encounters as a youth...

Alexander, now seven years old, waits in the royal halls at Pella, the capital of ancient Macedonia. His father was away on yet another campaign. This was a troubling situation, but three Persian envoys had shown up at the gates. Known as Menapis the Egyptian, Artabazus, and Memnon of Rhodes. They exchanged formalities and courtesies, Alexander got straight to business though it would not be the business the envoys hoped for. “How large is the Achaemenid army?” He asked, his face as serious as it was excited. “How is their morale? What is the state of your roads? How long is it to your capital, Susa?” The forward questions struck quickly and precisely like lightning, leaving all three men completely aghast. Most children his age would ask about the beautiful Hanging Gardens of Babylon, or what the greatest treasures of the powerful Achaemenids looked like. Recovering from their brief moment of shock, the three men were greatly impressed. Memnon in particular, would recall this memory when he would meet Alexander again one day...

Primary Sources: Plutarch’s “Plutarch’s Lives: Life of Alexander the Great”, Peter Green’s “Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C. A Historical Biography”

Picture of the goddess Fortune taken from https://journeyingtothegoddess.wordpress.com/2012/04/11/goddess-fortuna/

Picture of the Temple of Artemis taken from http://travellingmoods.com/temple-of-artemis-ancient-greek-temple-in-turkey/

[discipulus-historicus-blog]

The Giant he stood on and the Spouse of Snakes

It is impossible to tell the tale our main character without first discussing his parents and a little bit about ancient Macedonian culture. This post will be cursory, as Alexander’s parents deserve their own story for another time.

To begin with, Macedonia was a land primarily known for it’s barbarian tendencies. For a long time, the Macedonians were seen as uncultured at best to the ancient Greeks. With contempt, the Greeks observed Macedonian rituals such as cutting a dog in half and marching an army in-between the two halves to purify the army, listened to their unrefined tongue that so often made oaths that were broken, and watched the Macedonian warriors prove (in their eyes) to be negligible threats to the great city states of ancient Greece. Macedonia was a land of hedonism, a world of rampant infidelity and usurpation of power.

Philip II, as a child, was sent to Thebes as a hostage as a result of a man named Ptolemy assassinating the legitimate heir to Macedonia’s throne, marrying the victim’s mother, and acted as regent of Macedonia until the next-in-line heir Perdiccas became of age. Ptolemy negotiated an alliance with Thebes and sent Philip along with other highly distinguished individuals as a sign of sincerity and good will. Philip then learned under the skilled Theban general Pammenes and saw the importance of a professional army that the Thebans displayed. Ptolemy eventually was executed by Perdiccas and arranged Philip’s release. Philip then made Philip the governor of a district, and Philip began to train his troops using the lessons he learned from the Theban military. Before long, Philip transformed the district levy into a professional force, something never before seen in Macedonia. Perdiccas then took an army that included most of Philip’s newly trained men into Illyria to secure Macedonia’s western border, and was defeated and killed.

Picture taken from http://www.ancientmacedonia.com/PhilipofMacedon.html

Philip would now take the throne of Macedonia in a time of great civil strife. The western front was completely open to the hostile Illyrians, the northern Paeonians has sensed Macedonia’s weakness and had already begun pillaging Macedonia’s upper lands, and Philip had to deal with four other claimants to the throne. Philip handled all these problems well. He had one pretender executed, bribed the backers of another two pretenders to assassinate those exact pretenders, then sent envoys to make flagrant promises and bribes to keep peace in the north for a time. Philip then secured a deal with Athens to pull the support away from the third pretender and forced him to surrender. The Illyrians were so impressed with how Philip defused the situation at home and to the north that they postponed their invasion.

Philip spent the winter training his military, then invaded Paeonia to the north and subjugated them. Without hesitating, Philip then attacked the Illyrians and defeated them in battle, regaining old Macedonian lands to the west and Philip would continue to strengthen his western front by smashing Illyria’s military vassals. Macedonia was now secure, and Philip was basically a national hero at this point.

Picture taken from http://alchetron.com/Philip-II-of-Macedon-806068-W

Skipping forward some time, Philip will meet his third wife, Olympias (or Myrtale as she was known then). She will be the mother of our protagonist. Hailing from Epirus, she was a fierce and odd girl even before she reached eighteen. She was a fanatical follower of Dionysus, and her habits clashed directly with domestic life. She kept many snakes as pets, and had ambition. This was important and rare, but was also not a concern to Philip at the time who was more interested in obtaining a heir. As if this was not alarming enough, Olympias has been described as a various many negative qualities: sullen, jealous, arrogant, and meddlesome to say the least.

Picture taken from http://www.livius.org/articles/person/olympias/

Both of Alexanders parents were quite the characters. With this woefully brief description, the stage is set for our story. We will begin in the year 356 B.C, Philip is now twenty-seven years old, a storied and unquestioned king of Macedonia, and has just received a messenger telling he has given birth to a son...

Primary Source: Peter Green’s “Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C. A Historical Biography”

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Welcome to the Storyteller’s Circle.

You seem tired. Don’t worry, we’re all friends here. Have a seat, make yourself comfortable. If you seek stories from times long past, this is one of many places for you. If it is not, I hope that you stay a spell and give me a chance to pique your interest anyways.

Tonight’s tale will be about a young man often described as one of the greatest commanders of all time. Born in ancient Macedonia, he would come to conquer everything in between the Balkans to the fringes of western India. His father was a smart and notable king and commander in his own right, and his mother was a fierce catalyst for her son’s all-encompassing ambition. He would leave a legacy that many generals afterward would seek to replicate. His name was Alexander, known primarily as Alexander the Great and Alexander of Macedon.

Primary sources for this story will be: Plutarch’s “Plutarch’s Lives: Life of Alexander the Great”, Peter Green’s “Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C. A Historical Biography”