Hey everybody! Last time we talked, I told you about incompatible behaviors, and I mentioned reinforcement and satiation, two other key elements of behavioral change.
Any behaviorist will tell you that the second two things go together, but today we’ll start with the reinforcement side of things. Reinforcement is, to put it simply, something that makes someone do something more. Sounds simple, right? Well, yeah, it is. Reinforcement makes life work, it’s how we learn to do things and learn to keep doing them. It happens inherently, naturally, or intentionally, and there are three big things to know about it – what kinds there are, what makes it effective, and when to use it.
Reinforcers can be positive or negative, primary or secondary. Because positive and negative cause so much confusion we’ll address them first. Positive reinforcement is something you add when something happens, and negative is something you take away. Positive reinforcement includes things like a tasty dinner after you try a new recipe, laughing when you see a movie, or being paid for your time on the job – all things that are added in exchange for something else you did. Negative reinforcement is includes things like putting on a jacket when it’s chilly (you remove the unpleasant cold feeling), doing a task someone is hounding you on (you remove the annoyance of being nagged), or washing the dishes that have been in the sink all week (you remove that funky smell from your kitchen). You take something unpleasant away as a reward for performance.
As an aside, that means negative reinforcement is NOT punishment – a punisher is intended to stop a behavior. Positive punishers are adding something unpleasant whether it’s an annoyed glare, a bad performance review, or a kick in the shin. Negative punishment takes something away, like TV privileges for sneaking out at night or 200 dollars for speeding. Punishers are also a last resort because they’re generally ineffective and can often teach the wrong lesson; many of us are familiar with the lesson of not getting caught.
Beyond the distinction of positive and negative reinforcement, there are primary and secondary reinforcers. Fortunately, this is much easier to differentiate: primary reinforcers are ones that are inherent to us, while secondary are learned. Food, drink, and sleep are basic primary reinforcers, things we can do to our heart’s content and always need again. This is why so much dog training starts with treats – even if your dog gets full and wanders off, they’ll get hungry again and the value will return. This also works with college students and pizza.
Secondary reinforcers, conversely, are things we’ve learned and can often get enough of. Money is is among the most prominent secondary reinforcers, and its flexibility means most people will always want more (or need, in our capitalist hellscape). On the other hand, we only want so many comfy chairs, no matter how much we love to sit and how long we do it. Without a chair breaking down, that need doesn’t replenish on its own. As another example, you can give someone a brand new video game for finishing a big task, but a second copy of the game isn’t going to have much value – the need doesn’t replenish no matter how great the game is and how much someone wanted it originally. To the contrary, things which deplete such as money, play time, or a coffee buzz are more likely to retain their value over the long term. In practice, I’ve found that primary and depleting secondary reinforcers are great ways to maintain a step by step process and encourage each step that’s closer to the goal. A big, permanent secondary reinforcer is a great way to reward meeting a goal entirely since it doesn’t need to be repeated, but it provides a strong incentive to reach the goal that small rewards may not provide.
So you know what reinforcers are, but how do you make them work? You use the DISC principle – that’s deprivation, immediacy, size, and contingency. In other words, it has to be something you want, it has to be quick, it has to be worth the effort, and it has to follow the wanted behavior. If the point is to reward a hungry ice cream loving college student for studying, for example, a great method is to give them a sixteen-ounce milkshake as soon as they finish reading a chapter in a textbook they hate. On the other hand, giving a one gallon milkshake to a lactose intolerant student three hours after they failed a test they didn’t study for won’t do anything for their study habits – although it might make them annoyed by your sarcastic offerings.
This applies to negative reinforcement, too. Have you ever had someone who’s constantly on your case who doesn’t acknowledge what you did or, even worse, immediately moves on to something else? The negative reinforcement is still there - that one fails the size, immediacy, and contingency tests! If the same person was driving you nuts but shut up about it and thanked you for your hard work before leaving you alone, of course, the negative reinforcement would be very effective; you’d even be more likely to do what they wanted before they started bugging you about it next time.
That brings us to the other big component of reinforcement – the reinforcer schedule. Reinforcement can be delivered on a fixed or variable schedule, based on ratio or interval. While it sounds complicated, there are a few constants between them all, and they’ll help you decide what’s right. Ratio and interval schedules refer to if a reward is handed out based on events or time; it can be easier to understand this concept by asking “Do I make it happen, or do I wait for it to happen?” A reward handed out every time you mow the lawn is a ratio schedule, one handed out at the end of the day if you mowed the lawn at least once is an interval. In daily life, most people work on an interval schedule, getting paid at the end of the pay period. Commission jobs, however, are a ratio schedule, being paid whenever they finish a task or tasks.
Schedules are also classified as fixed or variable, which is just what it sounds like – rewards are given at exact or varied times. If you push a button and a treat comes out, it’s a fixed ratio, making vending machines a fantastic fixed ratio reward system (as long as they work – but that’s a subject for another time). Variable ratio schedules work out to an average, but don’t have a guarantee. You pull the lever, you may or may not get a reward, but the lure of it keeps you going. In case it’s not obvious, slot machines are the ultimate variable ratio reinforcer schedule, with the lure of the big one and the intermittent small rewards keeping players coming back for more.
So what’s the best thing to use? Well, that depends on the intent, but variable schedules produce a constant work rate, and fixed produce a rate that includes more breaks (there’s a great article on schedules with a great chart at Boundless). Variable ratios and intervals are best for keeping attention over the long term, but fixed ratios are better at getting someone started. In the end, it’s best to keep your options open – you may start with one and find it’s not working, or may switch to another because your needs changed. Just remember the behaviorist’s credo: “There’s no step too small and no reward too large.” If you make progress and the reward is worth it, keep it up. If you’re not making progress and the reward isn’t worth it, change it up.
One final note of caution – a reinforcer is best when it’s in addition to the norm, not in place of. Don’t skip whole meals you’d normally eat, for example, or suddenly decide your morning trip to the coffee shop doesn’t happen until you’ve finished your entire shift at work. Hunger might be a negative reinforcer, but it’s also an unhealthy solution.
Next time, we’ll talk about satiation, the third big piece to a behavior change – something that affects starting and stopping, as well as reward. Cheat days, ineffective reinforcement, and even the dreaded overdoing it!
(Once again, if you found this article helpful or want to know more, consider signing up for my newsletter or even setting an appointment. I’d love to teach you more and get you on the path to permanent change.)