momagick

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Week 2: Chiesa del Gesu (1-6), Chiesa di San Carlo della Quattra Fontane (7), Chiesa di Santa Susanna, Chiesa di Santa Maria della Vittoria (not pictured) Since this trip I can easily say that Francesco Borromini is one of my favorite architects. One of his masterpieces is the Church of Saint Carlo della Quattra Fontane, an ingenious solution to a diminutive space. It was Borromini's earliest commission, patroned in 1634 by the Barberini family for a small order of nuns. The funding for this site eventually fell through and had many financial complications, but Borromini was still able to accomplish a fabulously unified space. This tiny church, which includes a crypt, incorporates an incredible amount of visual language without overwhelming the viewer. In fact, to me it is one of the purest expressions of Borromini's witty and deceptive style. On the exterior, one already is hit with a range of impossible architecture. Borromini's signature concave/convex facade accentuates the illusion of a two story building, and columns are provided as as decoration, not true support. There is an overall impression that decorative elements supersede practicality, making it the anathema of Classical architecture, even as he includes inspiration from it. The interior is filled with light, and the raised cupola over the dome creates the illusion that the chapel is larger than life. Overall, the church is an expression Bramante would have likely scoffed at as dishonest, in which the exterior does not match the interior. Borromini's spacial challenges here did bear similarities to that of Bramante's when he built the Tempietto, but their approaches are completely different. Where Borromini distorted, Bramante aligned and simplified. Yet both sites achieve an inspirational harmony within a very small space. What I especially like about Borromini, here as well as at Sapienza, is his ability to embellish with restraint. Although he is a key Baroque architect, he does not shock you with spectacle in the same way that his rival Bernini does. Rather, his intellect shines through the work in subtle and surprising ways. For example, his love of botany is translated in his precise replication of real plants, on his facades, friezes and capitols. And although he always made his work uniquely his own, Borromini's designs reflect a strong interest in Classical architecture inspired by the Pantheon, Hadrian's Villa, Renaissance styles, and countless other wonders of Rome. Unfortunately we had to rush through this church rather quickly, so I only snapped one photo of the cupola (last photograph). The rest are of Chiesa del Gesu, a polar opposite of the muted white architecture of Quattra Fontane.

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Week 2: Hadrian’s Villa & Villa d'Este, Tivoli, Italy. Today we got a break from the heat and city bustle of Rome to experience the gigantic complex that is Hadrian’s Villa, and afterwards the refreshing waters of Villa d'Este. Both sites are located in Tivoli, Italy, an ancient town in the Lazio region, 19 miles northeast of Rome. Originally the site of Tivoli was referred to as Tibur, and traces of human settlement date back to the 13th century BC. Tibur gained citizenship to the Roman Empire in 90 BC, and many upper class Roman citizens began to build their villas here. Because water is such a significant aspect of the noble retreat, the location was ideal; the city boasts abundant waterfalls and access to the Aniene river. It was also an important route for Roman soldiers, as it offered refuge (provided by the Appenine Mountains) on Via Tiburtina en route to enemy settlements of the Samnites, Volsci, and Sabini tribes. Hadrian's Villa (Villa Adriana in Italian) began construction in 113 AD, and was used by the Emperor Hadrian as a retreat and alternative to the palace on the Palatine Hill in Rome. Its relative proximity to the capital meant that the emperor could come to the villa on a whim by horseback, and he often came to live in Tibur in the spring and fall. Villa Adriana was the biggest and most expensive Imperial villa of the Roman Empire, and no expense was spared to build this massive complex, which totals an area of over 250 acres. The emperor began his life in Italia as an orphan, but was eventually adopted by Emperor Trajan as his successor. He received his education in Rome and grew especially fond of literature and the arts (Greek in particular). He was a an avid traveler and hunter, and is often compared to Augustus Caesar for his diplomatic style. Emperor Hadrian’s worldly personality is on full display at Villa Adriana. It is modeled after his idea of the ideal city, and incorporates Roman, Egyptian, and Greek architectural styles. Although much of the villa remains to be excavated, the complex contains a wide variety of structures: theatres, temples, fishing ponds, a stadium, baths, towers, extensive gardens, libraries, and living quarters for Hadrian’s court members. At its height, as many as 5,000 people lived and worked inside the complex. After touring the incredible ruins, it is challenging to imagine just how astounding the site would have been in its original splendor. Many marble statues, fountains, and columns have been altered, destroyed, or looted, and the gardens, though maintained well today, would have been even more lush. Many architects and students today come to study the architecture of this site, and its legacy lives on today in modern building. Our tour guide described it as being the “most Baroque building before the Baroque movement.” Certainly elements of Baroque architecture are expressed here, most notably the concave and convex walls of the small thermae (baths). This site is one of the most impressive representations of Classical antiquity, and reverberations of its style are still felt in Renaissance and modern interpretations. The nearby Villa d'Este is the most direct kin of Villa Adrian; it is built a few miles away and is a fascinating representation of what the Emperor’s villa might have been like in operation. Photographs: Villa Adrian (1-5), Villa d'Este (6-10)

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Day 2: Bernini’s Four Rivers Fountain, Sant'Agnese in Agone, Piazza/Chiesa di S. Ignazio, Sant'Andrea de la Fratte, Sapienza University. Today we visited many sites, but most interesting to me were Bernini’s Four Rivers Fountain and the original site of Sapienza University (which includes the Palazzo della Sapienza and the Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza). The Four Rivers Fountain is placed in what is today known as the Piazza Navona. Originally this piazza functioned as the Stadium of Domitian, a Roman emperor who built it in 80 AD to hold athletic games. This space has an interesting history; it has had many different names and functions. At the time of Domitian it was also known as the Circus Agonalis (Latin for “games”). Later it morphed into Nagona, and finally the present bastardization, Piazza Navona. It is appropriate that the Church of Sant'Agnese in Agone looms over the square; it is dedicated to Saint Agnes, whose name translates in Latin as agony and shares meaning with Domitian’s agonalis. The prolific Gianlorenzo Bernini designed the Four Rivers Fountain in 1650, during the same year that the wealthy Pamphili family built their palazzo in the Piazza Navona. The piazza had been revitalized after many changes, and was a common meeting place/market in Rome at the time of Bernini. Even to this day remnants of Domitian’s Circus remain, sticking out of restaurants and parts of the piazza. Bernini, who was commissioned by Pope Innocent X, was tasked with creating a work which would function not only as a practical fountain “for the people,” but also as tasteful political propaganda incorporating his signature Baroque style. As in countless other projects, he succeeded. There are many allegorical and symbolic features to the fountain which helped him to achieve this programme. The fountain sits in the center of the piazza, in front of the Church of Sant'Agnese in Agone, and its style fits seamlessly into the architecture of the church. Or, one should say, the church fits into the sensibilities of the fountain; Borromini designed the facade a year later. As an artwork it must be viewed in the round. The four rivers are seen on each corner: the Danube, Ganges, Nile, and de la Plata rivers are all portrayed as representations of the Roman Catholic dominion over the world. The fountain, in itself a symbol of the giver of life, which combined with the dove and olive branch at the top of the obelisk reference the biblical story of Noah and the great flood. Since the dove and olive branch were symbols of the Pamphili family, the metaphor points to their position in society. As saviors of the people and givers of life, their agenda supposedly functioned as Noah’s Ark did. Photos are as follows: (1) Four Rivers Fountain in front of the Church of Sant'Angnese in Agone (2-9) Sapienza University. Includes the sketches of Francesco Borromini for the facade and library, as well as etchings made for thesis prints of graduating students.

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Week 2: St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome. Today we visited St. Peter’s Basilica, a process which involves waiting in line within the “arms” of Bernini’s Piazza (not a bad place to hang out). The piazza, completed from 1656-1667 by Bernini as an addition to the many layers of pre-existing architecture, embraces an ancient Egyptian obelisk, one of many remaining in Rome. In ancient Rome an obsession formed around Egyptian art, and many obelisks were imported along with other important artifacts, some of which date from the 15th centuries BC. The obelisk in St. Peter’s Square was installed in the piazza in 1585 after a long competition was held between various engineers debating how to best erect it. Now, in the space of Bernini’s design, it anchors, centers, and defines the square, which pre-Bernini lay in squalor relative to the magnificent basilica behind it. Today it functions as a unified whole, one of the goals of several Popes, most notably perhaps being Julius II, who commissioned Bramante to initiate the rebuilding of the somewhat neglected basilica. Upon Julius II’s death, a string of master artists/architects followed: giants such as Raphael, Giuliano da Sangallo, Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Michelangelo, Carlo Maderno and Gianlorenzo Bernini all worked on the basilica/piazza at some point. Once one enters the basilica, to the right looms the famous Pieta by Michelangelo. It is an interesting and touching representation; Michelangelo portrayed Christ with childlike proportions in comparison to Mary, who is much taller and cradles him protectively. As one looks up the nave the initial impression could be of anti-climax; the basilica looks small in comparison to it’s reputation. This is mere illusion. Upon walking the long trek from the entrance towards Bernini’s masterpiece, the baldacchino, the illusion disappears and is replaced by reverent awe. Bernini’s famous structure is an awesome 98 ft tall, and draws magnetic attention to what lies below it - the tomb of St. Peter. The construction of the baldacchino is ingenious in the space of the basilica because it grounds the attention of visitors within an inconceivably massive structure without dominating the altars and sculpture surrounding it. It was not until Carlo Moderno transformed the architecture that any artist felt comfortable with approaching the task, and Bernini was given nearly full reins of the space around St. Peter’s tomb. The entire 98 ft structure is cast in pure bronze and filled with concrete, an engineering feat in itself.

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Week 2: Caravaggio day! This prolific and sought out painter was born Michelangelo Merisi in Caravaggio, Italy, a small Northern town to which he owes his namesake. Although he trained under a painter named Simone Peterzano (who trained under Titian), his style is uniquely his own. Caravaggio began living in Rome under the radar - virtually no one had heard of him and he spent much of his time painting self portraits. It was not until Cardinal Francesco Del Monte took notice of Caravaggio that he was catapulted onto the Roman art scene. At the time (1599-1600) the Church of San Luigi dei Francesi (1) needed artists, and Caravaggio was given the job of decorating the Contarelli Chapel inside illustrating the story of Saint Matthew. This commission was his first series of paintings in which he used more than a few figures, and his first time attempting to incorporate architecture (which he later eschewed for his signature dark background). X-rays show multiple drafts within each painting where Caravaggio redid sections and worked out problems with perspective. Although his initial submission was rejected, the paintings which hang today in the Contarelli Chapel now are some of the most celebrated paintings in the history of Western art. The paintings include The Calling, The Inspiration, and The Martyrdom of St. Matthew (2-3). Caravaggio’s painting style is now known as tenebrism. The dark background and unbelievable lighting create a dramatic stage to view the scenes of Saint Matthew’s story, yet this hyperbole is contrasted with Caravaggio’s figures, which exhibit many angles of human emotion and realism. From the perspective of the church, there are pros and cons to this style. With these paintings in particular, the abstracted representation of the stories of Matthew themselves were a problem - looking at The Martyrdom even experts are unsure of exactly what conflict he was trying to portray, and why he included certain elements. This was an issue because one of the main elements of ecclesiastic painting is clarity - visitors must be able to connect with the teachings of God. Another common complaint about Caravaggio is that because he paints Jesus, for example, as a person one might see on the street, it lowers and devalues the heavenly realm. Although Jesus is distinguishable by his thin halo, it is barely visible and he is depicted similarly to the other figures (including Saint Matthew, who is portrayed realistically as an unsuspecting tax collector). Although Caravaggio’s critics were concerned with his seeming lack of reverence, many common people felt delighted with his work because the figures resonated with them in ways most idealized images could not. Because Saint Matthew and Jesus are not portrayed as unattainable and representational models of reality (Caravaggio often used models he met on the street) there is a level of human, and not godly, recognition that is accessible to anyone who comes to sees these paintings. Other photos: (4) Madonna of the Pilgrims, Church of Sant'Agostino. This painting was commissioned by the Cavalletti family after the St. Matthew Chapel. (5) Incredible winged skull funerary motif, Church of Sant'Agostino (6) St. Thomas' Charity, M. Caffa e E Ferrata, Church of Sant'Agostino

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(1&2) Michelangelo Caravaggio’s Crucifixion of St. Peter and Conversion of St. Paul with Annibale Carracci’s Assumption of St. Mary, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome. Caravaggio was 29 at the time of this commission. His first round of paintings were rejected for being too “real,” a criticism familiar to Caravaggio when commissioned for ecclesiastic works due to his use of tenebrism (a technique which uses heavy dark tones, dramatic lighting, and often realism to portray the figures). Note, for example the fact that St. Peter (on the right) does not have a halo. Although these paintings were accepted, this portrayal was often criticized as well; other depictions of St. Peter idealize him and do not show his wrinkles, thin figure, and stressed features. Carracci’s work, by contrast, uses bright colors and classical figures which are representational - that is, he did not paint any particular person but rather uses a sort of template to symbolize them. Also pictured are (3-5) Lorenzotto and Gianlorenzo Bernini, Chigi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome. (6-9) Gianlorenzo Bernini, Villa Borghese (10) Michelangelo Caravaggio’s David and Goliath, Villa Borghese.

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Day 5: Catacombs of St. Callixtus and St. Sebastian, Circus of Maxentius, and the Tomb of Caecilia Metella. The Catacombs of Rome are collectively some of the most significant historical sites to modern Christianity, as they are markers for a major shift which occurred in the beginning of the common era from the traditional Roman Empire to the domination of the Christian age. In terms of art history these tombs provide a rich reference when discussing Early Christian art - they are the root of visual representation in sculpture, fresco, and monument-making. Despite the significance for Christianity, the site was started by ancient Romans; since the time of the Etruscans families were buried in underground chambers, which here were dug into what was once a valley. Translated, the word catacomb means "next to the valley," and in the depths of St. Sebastian one can still view the original Roman tombs which house the ashes of families from before the 1st century AD. Christians preferred burial over cremation, as it was said that the soul of the body would be destroyed if burned. Because of this Christians began digging graves below the original Roman tombs into the soft rock known as tufa, a volcanic layer which is easily carved into with picks. This process creates a structure thought of as a "reverse monument"; rather than stories proceeding upwards one views them chronologically downward, with the most recent being the deepest level. Once the hole was dug, the body would be placed inside then filled with quicklime, which was set with a tombstone slab of marble or granite carved with the name and later date or memoriam to the deceased. Because Early Christianity did not possess a strong visual history, much of the visual language is strongly simplified and based on stories from the Old and New Testaments - for example The Book of Jonah and the parable of the Good Shepard. Although these frescoes feature distinctly Christian subjects one is reminded that the builders are unavoidably Roman. Certainly Biblical references dominate, but there are Greco-Roman references throughout: Jonah is painted reposing under a fig tree as would the Greek character Endymion, and in one painting Jesus holds a wand, a combination that seems altogether strange now but is valid in context of the pagan traditions of ancient lore. Pictured are (1) Sign to the Catacomb of St. Sebastian, one of only a few accessible Roman catacomb sites left. Many have been reduced to rubble/collapsed. (2) Sculpted figures from Christian sarcophagi (3-7) Basilica of St. Sebastian, important martyr for the Christians, visually represented with arrows piercing his body. This basilica was restored by Cardinal Cafarelli-Borghese in the 17th century, and includes a sculpture attributed to Bernini (5). (7) Further down the via Appia are the ruins of the Circus of Maxentius, built by the emperor in the beginning of the the 4th century AD as a memorial to his son, who had died young. (8) This tomb, also on the via Appia, is where Caecilia Metella was interred in the 1st century BC. She was the daughter of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus (consul of Rome in 69 BC), and married the son of the famously wealthy general Marcus Licinius Crassus, who served under and sponsored Julius Caesar and rivaled Pompey the Great. Crassus, Caesar and Pompey formed the first Triumvirate, a powerful alliance which controlled the Roman Empire in the mid- 1st century BC.

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Day 4: San Pietro in Montorio, Tempietto, and Palazzo Farnesina: today we visited the church of San Pietro in Montorio (first photo) which includes Bramante's Tempietto. Later we explored the Palazzo Farnesina, the complement to Villa Farnese (discussed yesterday). Unfortunately I could not get photos of the palazzo because it is now the French Embassy and security levels are bordering paranoia, but I will post a photo of the exterior soon. I will discuss the palazzo below.

Across the Tiber River from the Villa Farnese (see earlier post) sits the enormous palace of the Farnese family, built in the early 16th century and later restored by the eminent Alexander Farnese. Alexander, whose sister was the Pope’s lover, was appointed cardinal at the shockingly young age of 23 years old. He used his connections within the elite and religious classes to increase the power of his family name, a historically common method for a native Roman. He was so successful that in 1534 he became Pope, under the name of Paul III. At this time he was expanding the palace significantly, and commissioned Michelangelo to re-design the main structure which had originated with famed architect Antonio Sangallo. Paul’s appointment as Pope came at a crucial time; the Sack of Rome in 1527 had recently scattered it’s citizens and Paul’s main comfort to the people was his family’s long native lineage. For that reason many elements of the palace employ classic Roman architecture, materials, and sculpture. Just as at Villa Farnese, these Classical elements grant legitimacy to the Farnese name, and when combined with Papal designs create a powerful structure which is both ancient and modern. The vestibule employs a basilica plan, with three naves supported by Doric columns which harken back to those of the Coliseum. Busts of Roman emperors are placed regularly along the vestibule, again connecting the Farnese with the magnificence of the Roman Empire. The courtyard used to be a loggia under Sangallo’s design, but with Michelangelo’s additions in 1534 the two open sides were closed into a courtyard and additional stories embellished with more ornate (and less Classical Roman) motifs, such as sculpted fruit friezes on the second floor and Baroque architecture on the third. The palace, which sits on the famous via Giulia, still functions as a place of official business; in 1936 it was given to the French government on a 99 year lease to use as their embassy. The French Embassy pays a symbolic 1 Euro per year on the terms that they maintain the property’s invaluable treasures both inside and out. Also pictured are some amazing stone memento mori from a church near the palace! Death is always waiting, what a guy huh?

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Day 3: Villa Farnesina. Today we visited this luxurious 16th century villa on the Tiber River, commissioned by the banker to the Pope, Augustino Cigi. At the time Cigi was likely the most wealthy man in Rome, and he exerted his influence at every turn, in this case by building a sumptuous home for the Farnese family. Although like all historical sites in this city it is now incorporated into a bustling, modern Rome, at the time of its construction it would have boasted a quiet retreat from the city center - a country residence worthy of entertaining Rome's most elite. As in ancient Rome, one residence was not sufficient for the wealthy to display their power, nor was it socially appropriate. While a villa traditionally functioned as a residence of tranquility, entertainment, and pleasure, families often built palaces (palazzo) to operate and conduct business. The Farnese were no different, and at the time perhaps the most lavish exemplars of this practice: on the opposite side of the Tiber River sits the Palazzo Farnese, a looming building containing various artistic treasures (more on that next post). The opposing aspects of business and pleasure are reflected in the design and decorative elements of both residences. Villa Farnesina is given to more playful, less religious/business related, and often erotic decorative themes free from the tight-laced morality of Roman life. The villa is organized from a public to private fashion; the first floor is been resplendent with frescoes based on well known stories from the Ovid, while the second floor would have been private and is painted with overtly erotic subject matter. The wealth of the Farnese meant that they could hire the most expensive and well-known painters; since this was the height of the Italian Renaissance rivals Raphael and Michelangelo were at the top of the list. Raphael agreed and painted a fresco of the nymph Gallatea, but Michelangelo was fully occupied as he had just begun painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. The Farnese family hired Sebastiano del Piombo, a famous painter in his own right and good friend of Michelangelo, who would often seek his advice and emulate his style. Therefore a rivalry is still apparent between Raphael's Gallatea and del Piombo's Cyclops. Raphael, well established by that point, painted his signature idealized figures; instead of representing individuals they are signifiers for an archetypical beauty harkening to Classical harmony. In contrast del Piombo painted Cyclops perhaps in the manner Michelangelo would have sculpted. The body is rendered with exaggerated musculature, while the face bears contorted features which communicate the crude reality of the subject. The rest of the first floor contains an extraordinary ceiling fresco which illustrates the story of Cupid and Psyche, perhaps as a foreshadowing of the more overtly erotic subject matter upstairs. As the story goes, Cupid, son of Venus, is in love with the mortal Psyche. Venus becomes extremely jealous and puts Psyche through a series of tests to achieve her blessing for their marriage. Raphael and his workshop impressively finished depicting this classic myth in under a year, a piece that would have served in the banquet room as a conversation starter and entertainment for party guests. These works are the most canonized pieces in the villa, but many other unknown/lesser known artists contributed to the home, especially upstairs. I included my favorite elements, known as "grotesques," in the last two photos. It is interesting to note that the more famous works are on the first floor while the second floor, however elaborate, holds less prolific pieces. Although the first floor mainly encouraged entertainment, an additional function of these works is that they related the Farnese family both to the Catholic church and also to the splendor of ancient Rome in their design, increasing their legitimacy to power.

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Day 2: Basilica di San Clemente. This ancient structure contains layers of architecture, sculpture, mosaic and fresco dating from the 19th century all the way back to the 2nd century AD. The whole structure is layered like an archaeological cake, at the top floor sits the minor Roman Catholic basilica, built in the 1100s. Its ceiling is decked out in Byzantine splendor, while the walls have a mishmash of 15th, 17th, and 19th century elements. Damp stone steps descend into the original basilica of San Clemente from the 4th century, which includes frescoes of the Virgin Mary (shown in the blurry photo above), groin vaulted ceilings, and a spring fed stream which run cold and potable to this day. 

Beneath this level still, deep underground, is the bottom layer, which nearly 2,000 years ago used to be just below ground level. These caverns were used around the 2nd-3rd century AD as a meeting place for the cult of Mithras, a Persian deity brought from the East and whose name etymology dates as far back as 1400 BC in Vedic texts. 

Rome contains many of these meeting chambers, called Mithraeum. This one likely existed below a private residence as a secret antechamber in which exclusive initiates could participate in the teachings of the mysteries of Mithras. Their symbol includes Mithras being birthed from a stone and sacrificing a bull - this image was carved into a pedestal in the main meeting chamber, around which initiates would sit on stone benches. 

Some speculate that the cult of Mithras was an important stepping stone into Christianity, as similar practices existed between the two. This metaphor exists quite literally, as one ascends back up the stone steps there looms the San Clemente church, built on the remains of the Mithraeum. There is even an odd piece of rock to illustrate this marriage of histories, on which one side is carved a Christian phrase while on the other is carved letters of the pagan cult (shown in the other blurry photo above).

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Roma! Giorno uno. Some activities for the day: walking, gelato, walking, discovery of this fairytale-esque Russian Orthodox church, walking. Butchering the Italian language. Stargazing with mouth open. Drooling. Saying ooh. And ah. Repeat ---->