Project: Revision

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http://classics.uc.edu/~johnson/tragedy/

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EURIPIDES, TROJAN WOMEN (Greek Tragedy Module).

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EURIPIDES, THE BACCHAE (Greek Tragedy Module).

Dionysus begins in Thebes by telling the story of how Zeus courted his mother, Semele, and how none of her family (mainly her two sisters, Autonoe and Ino and her father Cadmus) had believed her. Hera, Zeus’ wife, was annoyed and made Zeus appear to Semele in his true form. He appeared as a lightning bolt and killed her. Dionysus had been saved by Hermes. Dionysus is here to clear her name.

Both old men and women alike are taken in by Bacchic ritual. Even Cadmus and Tieresias have been taken in.

Upon his return from business, Pentheus, the ruler of the city, returns and is angry that his people are involved in such ritualistic behaviour. He sends out his soliders to arrest anyone dressed in Dionystic clothing.

One of the people who is brought in by the soliders is Dionysus himself, but he is in disguise. Pentheus questions him and this questioning reveals an interest in the Bacchic rights. Dionysus is really unhelpful though, and so Pentheus puts him in prison.

Dionysus breaks out of prison very quickly because he is a god. He causes an earthquake and fire that destroy Pentheus’ palace. 

The festival of the Bacchae (women of the city) is happening in the mountains called Cithaeron. Reports are sent that the women are behaving particularly oddly (suckling wild wolves, putting snakes in their hair etc) and guards were not even able to harm them with weapons. 

Dionysus, wanting to punish Pentheus for his lack of Dionysiac worship, convinces the king that he should go to see the Bacchic women and tells him to dress up as a woman to do so. Slowly but surely Pentheus becomes mad, beginning with seeing double (ie. he saw two bulls leading him up the mountain).

A messenger speech informs the audience that, having encouraged the dressed up Pentheus to climb up a tree to get a better view, Dionysus informs the Bacchic women that they have an intruder.

The Bacchants are angry and so tear the body of Pentheus apart. 

Pentheus’ mother, Agave, who is one of the Bacchic women, comes onto the stage holding the head of her son. She truly believes that she has torn apart a wild animal and does not realise it is Pentheus’ head until Dionysus’ spell has worn off. Her father Cadmus also reels in horror. The family is destroyed and Agave and her sisters are sent into exile. Tieresias is the only one not to suffer. 

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EURIPIDES, HIPPOLYTUS (Greek Tragedy Module).

Aphrodite is angered by Hippolytus because he is too chaste. He only honours Artemis and refuses to acknowledge the goddess of love.

Hippolytus and his fellow hunters sing a song in honour of Artemis, but one of them warns Hippolytus not to forget Aphrodite.

The Chorus of Women sing about the illness of Phaedra. They wonder what would be wrong with her.

Phaedra enters the stage with her Nurse. The Nurse question her about her illness and wants to know what it is that Phaedra is feeling. Eventually, after a lot of persuasion, Phaedra reveals that her affliction is a passionate love for her step-son, Hippolytus.

Phaedra says she will kill herself so that she keeps her good name. The Nurse begs her to forget about the love she is feeling. Phaedra seems adamant that she cannot.

The Nurse leaves saying that she will return with a potion to cure Phaedra.

The Chorus sing an ode to the powers of Eros.

The Nurse reveals Phaedra's feelings to Hippolytus. He is angry and delivers a strong-willed speech against women in general. Because the Nurse has made Hippolytus enter an oath of silence, he does not let the information go any further, but he approaches Phaedra angrily. 

Phaedra is angry with the Nurse and dismisses her.

The Chorus sing about fleeing the world, miserable as it is.

A Maid arrives and reveals the suicide of Phaedra.

Theseus arrives and Phaedra's body is exposed.

In Phaedra's hand is a tablet on which she has written an accusation of rape aimed at Hippolytus. 

Theseus is absolutely livid and prays to Poseidon that he punish Hippolytus.

Hippolytus arrives and defends himself against the allegations made by his father. He lists the following reasons:

He is a virgin.

Phaedra was not so beautiful that he would have broken his chastity for her.

He much prefers his honourable position of chastity to the complicated nature of kingship.

He validates his innocence by his solemn oaths to the gods.

Theseus is still angry and banishes his son.

Although he could have broken his oath of silence to Phaedra and her Nurse and explained everything to his father, Hippolytus thinks better of it and leaves sadly.

The Chorus laments the changing fortunes of man and mourns the departure and downfall of Hippolytus.

A Messenger arrives and reveals the death of Hippolytus. Poseidon had sent a bull from the sea which destroyed his chariot. Theseus, at this point, still believes this is the right thing to have happened.

The dying body of Hippolytus is brought back to Theseus upon his orders.

Artemis arrives and reveals the truth of the situation to Theseus. She says that he had made understandable decisions because he has been ignorant and could not have fully understood the situation. 

Hippolytus enters and talks to Artemis. She promises to found a cult in his name as a kind of repayment for the will of Aphrodite that lead him to be in such an awful situation.

Hippolytus forgives Theseus and then dies.

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EURIPIDES, MEDEA (Greek Tragedy Module).

The Nurse wishes that the Argo had never set sail because then Medea would not have been left by Jason. Instead she is headed for exile while Jason prepares to marry Creon's daughter.

The Tutor relays to the Nurse Creon's decision to exile Medea from Corinth.

The Chorus of Corinthean Women try to comfort Medea.

Medea delivers a speech about women and how they compare to their male counterparts. She says how she would rather go to battle three times over than to give birth once. She is angry that women are kept at home and expected to do very particular roles while men get to leave the house and gain all the praise for the success of the nation. She talks about how women who are wronged are blood-thirsty, despite being (expected to be) timid most of the time.

Medea begins to plot. She begs Creon for one extra day in Corinth so that she can organise herself and her sons. He agrees reluctantly.

After Creon leaves, we hear Medea mock his naivety. She plans to murder. Her only problem is where she will go after she has committed the crimes.

Jason seems disgusted at Medea and the way she has talked. He seems to suggest that she has brought her exile upon herself but she angrily reminds Jason of his involvement in her predicament. 

She accuses him of breaking their oath. She reminds him that she is now without family (she killed her brother to help Jason) and without anywhere to live (she would not be welcomed home because of the familial murder, and has now been banished from Corinth too).

Jason counters her arguments by pointing out how 'fortunate' she is; he says that he has offered her the chance to live in civilised lands and that she is famous for her clever exploits because of him too.

Jason says he is marrying the Princess for the sake of their sons and for Medea's sake too. He offers her money but she refuses it. He washes his hands of the matter.

Aegeus happens to be passing by. He offers Medea refuge in his land on the condition that she finds her own way there.

Medea plots the death of Glauce and her own sons.

She summons Jason and explains that she has had a change of heart. She also says that she would like to give Glauce a reconciliation gift, but that her sons should be the ones to deliver it.

A Messenger reports the death of Glauce. She had put on the robes that Medea had sent only to find that they were laced with poison. Creon, seeing his daughter suffer, clung onto her dying body and became infected by the poison himself. He died too.

Medea enters with a sword in her hand, ready to kill her sons.

The Chorus sing an ode question Medea and her heart of stone.

Jason enters. He is worried about his sons; he thinks they will be outcast by the Corintheans because their mother had killed both King and Princess.

He is told of the murder of his children and is devastated. He says Medea is less woman, more lioness, fiercer than Scylla.

Medea says that she was not prepared to face the humiliation of Jason's marriage to another woman and that, because of his actions, he was to blame for the death of his sons.

Jason and Medea part in mutual hatred. Medea leaves in the chariot of the Sun god. She says she will be the one to bury her children.

The Chorus sings, saying that heaven finds ways to achieve the unexpected.

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SOPHOCLES, ELECTRA (Greek Tragedy Module).

Orestes sends his Tutor to the Royal Palace to announce his 'death'.

Meanwhile Electra laments the loss of her father Agamemnon.

The Women of Mycenae try to control Electra's undying grief but have little luck. She is missing her father especially because she has no husband or children to occupy her time. Instead she is fatherless and waiting for her long lost brother, Orestes, to return home. She refuses to stop grieving even though it seems the only way to make herself feel better; Justice demands that the dead will be revenged.

Chrysosthemis tries to calm her sister down but Electra is angry with her and accuses her of being a coward and her mother's daughter.

Chrysosthemis tells Electra that she has been threatened with living out her life in a cave if she does not relent her grief.

Chrysosthemis is sent by Clytemnestra to Agamemnon's grave to make offerings. Clytemnestra had dreamed that Agamemnon was alive again. Electra persuades her sister to go to grave and to pray for vengeance once she got there.

The Chorus sing about how Justice will eventually come in the form of a Fury.

Clytemnestra says that she has acted with Justice in mind when she killed Agamemnon, because she was avenging her daughter who he had used as an offering to appease the gods before leaving for Troy.

Electra answers her by claiming that Agamemnon had very little choice in his sacrifice; Artemis had been angry and had to be appeased in order to save the army, and this is why he had killed Iphigenia. Electra realises that the killing of her sister was a tragic act but is convinced that her mother's actions were unnecessary, especially as she was sleeping with her father's killer. She is sure that the reason for the murder was lust and nothing else.

Clytemnestra sacrifices to Apollo.

The Tutor arrives and announces Orestes' 'death' in a chariot race. *Interesting comparison to be made with Hippolytus' death story*

Clytemnestra is sad about her son's apparent death but is also relieved. 

The Chorus lament the death of Orestes along with Electra. 

Chrysostemis arrives and announces that Orestes must be near by because, while at Agamemnon's grave, she had found offerings and a lock of Orestes' hair.

Electra explains that she must be wrong because of the report about their brother's death. She asks her sister to help her kill Aegisthus.

Chrysosthemis refuses to help her sister and advises her to just give in to those who are stronger that her. Electra says she is weak and vows to kill Aegisthus.

The Chorus ask sing in the hope that Electra might be raised above her foes.

Orestes arrives in disguise. He is pretending to carry the ashes of 'dead' Orestes. He sees Electra mourning for his loss. He cannot restrain his pity and so reveals himself to her by showing her his signet ring. 

Electra is delighted by Orestes makes her quiet. 

The Tutor is angry with the siblings for being so blatant about their joy. Even when Electra shows delight to see him, he tell her off and makes sure that Orestes makes his way into the palace.

The Chorus sing about how Ares, the Furies and Hermes will be helping Orestes in the act he is about to commit.

Clytemnestra's screams for mercy are heard from inside the palace. 

Orestes comes out of the palace and says he has successfully killed his mother.

Aegisthus is seen approaching the palace. He asks about the Messengers but Electra tells him that Orestes' body is inside the palace.

He enters but sees Clytemnestra's body. Orestes reveals himself and takes Aegisthus inside. We are made to believe that Orestes will kill Aegisthus in the same place that Agamemnon was killed. 

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SOPHOCLES, AJAX (Greek Tragedy Module).

Athena reveals Ajax's madness to Odysseus. Ajax, angry about not being given the arms of Achilles, has attacked flocks of sheep and cows, thinking they are the Argives. He is keeping them captive in his tent. He boasts about his brilliance in combat.

The Chorus of Sailors from Salamis are disturbed by the rumours.

Tecmessa, Ajax's wife, reports that her husband is no longer gripped by madness. He was overcome during the night, causing him to commit the acts of violence, but was now aware of what he had done. Wails are heard from Ajax's tent.

Ajax is revealed sitting among corpses. He wishes death upon himself so that his shame might go away. He curses Odysseus and mourns his own fate.

Ajax announces that there is nothing left for him since the Atreiadae awarded Achilles' arms to Odysseus.

Tecmessa begs her husband not to leave her alone. Ajax talks to his baby son. *Parody of Hector in the Iliad when he talks to his wife and baby.*

The Chorus sing about the state that Ajax is in and also how awful his parents will feel when they hear about his suicide.

Ajax announces a change of heart. He says he will bury his sword on the beach and renounce his anger.

The Chorus rejoice.

Ajax's half-brother Teucer arrives. He is warned by Calchas that Ajax shouldn't be allowed to leave his camp for the rest of the day. Teucer sends a message to Ajax's camp about Calchas' prophecy.

Tecmessa tries to track her husband down when she hears the message. They are too late though and Ajax has buried his sword in the sand, blade upwards, and has impaled himself on the blade.

The audience hears Ajax's speech just before he kills himself. This is quite an unusual decision by the playwright. In this speech Ajax calls for revenge to be taken on the Atreiadae brothers, Agamemnon and Menelaus, and the whole Greek army. He also says that he wishes Teucer to be the person to find his body so that he might be given a proper burial.

Tecmessa finds him first though, quickly followed by Teucer, who takes Eurysaces in an attempt to save him from his father's ignoble actions. 

Menelaus arrives next and gives orders that Ajax's body should not be moved.

The last part of the play is all about deciding what to do with the body of Ajax. Agamemnon and Menelaus demand that his body is not buried but Teucer insists that he will give his half-brother a proper burial despite his suicide.

Odysseus, despite being Ajax's enemy, steps in and persuades Agamemnon and Menelaus to allow Ajax full burial rights. He points out that if a man is noble in his life he should be respected in death, even by his enemies.

The play ends with Teucer organising a funeral. Odysseus will not attend out of respect for Ajax.

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SOPHOCLES, OEDIPUS THE KING (Greek Tragedy Module).

- The Riddle of the Sphinx is important background to this play. It goes like this: what goes on four legs in the morning, 2 legs at noon, and 3 legs at night? The answer is: man as he grows from a crawling baby to an old man with a walking stick.

- Oedipus means 'swollen foot'

- The very first line of the play, when in Greek, puts the words 'new' and 'ancient' right next to each other.

- The idea of 'knowing' is both important and problematised by the text. While who knows what is important, it is also central to think about who really truly understands the knowledge that is before them.

- The text is absolutely full of irony (i.e. when Jocasta tells Oedipus the reported story that Laius was killed by many theives, he says:

You said thieves-- he told you a whole band of them murdered Laius. /So, if he still holds to the same number, /I cannot be the killer. One can't equal many. 

And the obvious irony here is that, despite being just one man, he is many - he is son, husband, killer, saviour etc.

The priests of Thebes go to Oedipus as suppliants and beg of him to find some cure for the plague that is destroying the people. Oedipus has already sent Creon to the Oracle at Delphi for guidance. Creon returns with the report that the killer of Laius, the previous king of Thebes, must be found and banished for the plague to end.

Oedipus vows that the killer will be found and sent from the city.

The Chorus of Theban citizens pray to Zeus, Apollo and Athena, asking them to free the people from plague.

After cursing the killer of Laius, Oedipus sends for the prophet Teiresias. At first he doesn't want to reveal what he knows but after a lot of taunting from Oedipus, he reveals that the killer of Laius is in fact Oedipus himself.

Oedipus, understandably, does not believe him and goes on to accuse Creon of being involved in a conspiracy.

Teiresias continues to claim that the killer is in the room and also that he would be both son and husband to his mother.

The Chorus as fearful of the prophet's prediction but claim loyalty to their King, Oedipus.

Creon is angry and upset about what Oedipus is accusing him of. The two men argue over the accusation. Jocasta arrives and intervenes.

 The Chorus advise Oedipus to remain restrained. He does so and releases Creon. He declares him an enemy though.

Oedipus tells Jocasta about why he has been arguing with Creon.

Jocasta tells the reported story of Laius' death. Oedipus recognises some of the details but there is a key difference between the reported story and the killing he himself had been involved in: Jocasta said that a group of men had killed Laius, but Oedipus had been alone when he killed a stranger on the cross-roads.

Oedipus worries about the article, but Jocasta puts his mind a rest by reassuring him that he could not possibly be her son; her son had been taken away at a young age and left on a hillside to be eaten by wolves because Laius had heard a prophecy that his first son would end up murdering him.

An ode to the sanctity of divine law follows. It talks about how 'the tyrant who ignores justice and reverence for the gods will fall and how the oracles must be true.'

A messenger arrives from Corinth. He informs Oedipus that his father, Polybius, has died. The shepherd reveals to Oedipus his true birth, and that Polybius had rescued him and was not his real father. Instead of making Oedipus worry, this story actually removes his fear of the oracle saying he would marry his mother because he thinks that he has no idea who his mother actually is.

Jocasta seems to have worked everything out at this point and objects to Oedipus' continued search for the murderer of Laius. He refuses to hear her though, and vows to continue.

There is an ode to Mount Cithaeron in which it is stated that everyone will soon learn the true identity of Laius' murderer.

The shepherd who took Laius and Jocasta's baby son into the mountains arrives. He explains that he did not kill the baby and that he had escaped alive. 

Finally Oedipus' parentage becomes clear to him. He runs into the palace.

A messenger announces the suicide of Jocasta and the self-blinding of Oedipus. Oedipus laments his fate, but accepts it.

Creon arrives and the blinded Oedipus begs him to look after his children.

Antigone and Ismene arrive to comfort their father. 

Creon tells Oedipus to go back into the Palace and away from his daughters. 

Creon assumes the Kingship 

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SOPHOCLES, ANTIGONE (Greek Tragedy Module).

Creon has decreed that Polynices should not be buried.

Antigone states that she will bury her brother and in doing so will go against this decree.

Ismene argues that they must obey the law.

The Chorus of Theban Elders are shown rejoicing and celebrating their victory and the retreat of the enemy.

Creon announces that Eteocles will be honoured as a hero but Polynices will be left without even proper burial rights. The Chorus support their King.

One of the men guarding the corpses arrives to tell Creon that a body has been stolen and given burial rights during the night. Creon is angry and accuses the guards of being bribed. The guards must find the culprit or face being killed.

The Chorus sing a song about how wondrous man is in his ability to sail, plough, hunt, build and cure; yet man is unable to find a cure for death. Sometimes man uses his cunning for good but sometimes for evil and the lawless men must be condemned.

The Chorus sees that Antigone has been captured and cannot quite believe their eyes.

The guards claim that Antigone was caught in the act of burying her brother. She does not deny the charge but claims she was acting upon the laws of the gods, laws which she says are far more important than those of mortals.

Creon is angry with Antigone and says that both she and Ismene will be punished for her actions. Still Antigone sees the care of her brother in his afterlife more important than her respect for her uncle, the King, Creon.

Ismene tries to take part of the responsibility for the crime but Antigone tells her not to. Still, Creon has them both arrested.

The Chorus lament on how the curse of a family is passed down through the generations.

The Chorus see Haemon approaching and looking angry.

Despite supporting his father, Haemon suggests to Creon that the people of Thebes who seem to support Antigone might have a point.

Creon is angry with his son for trying to give him advice and they argue. This argument ends in Creon threatening to kill Antigone on the spot. 

Haemon leaves angrily saying that Creon will never see him again.

Creon announces that Antigone will be taken to a rocky place and given a small amount of food so that she will eventually die but the death will not be on his conscience.

The Chorus sing about love and its ability to conquer all things.

The Chorus see Antigone on the way to her 'tomb'.

Antigone laments that she is about to become the Bride of Death. The Chorus remind her of an important woman called Niobe who suffered the same fate.

As Creon orders Antigone away, she notes the importance of a brother over a husband or children.

The Chorus then talk about other examples of fated women like Danae and Cleopatra.

Teiresias arrives and tells Creon that he needs to stop dictating ceremony that has long been ordained by the gods. Even though Creon accuses Teiresias of being bribed, Teiresias continues his warning saying that Haemon will be killed as punishment for Creon's actions.

Creon is worried and, on the Chorus' advice, yields. He goes to bury Polynices and release Antigone.

There is an ode to Dionysus, the guardian of Thebes.

A messenger brings news of Creon's fall from glory. Eurydice hurries the messenger wanting to know what has happened. He reports that Creon arrived to Antigone to find that she has hanged herself. Haemon was there grieving for her. He turned his sword on Creon but, being unable to kill his father, kills himself.

Eurydice quietly exits.

Creon re-enters with the dead body of his son Haemon.

A messenger reports the self-stabbing of Eurydice as she cursed her husband.

Creon wishes death to find him quickly. He realises his wrong-doings all too late.

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AESCHYLUS, PERSIANS (Greek Tragedy Module).

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AESCHYLUS, THE ORESTEIA (Greek Tragedy Module).

AGAMEMNON

After lamenting the state that the Royal house has been left in, the Watchman sees a signal from a beacon signalling the fall of Troy. He goes to tell the Queen, Clytemnestra. 

Twelve Elder of Argos approach Clytemnestra and ask her for the news. They are likened to vultures.

Clytemnestra announces the fall of Troy. The Chorus seem to not believe that this could be true. Clytemnestra explains the way that Agamemnon has set up a system of beacons so that the news might spread easily if they did sack Troy. She thinks about the destruction that Troy must be facing now.

The Chorus thank Zeus for repaying the folly of Paris. They do, however, question Clytemnestra and whether she, like most women, has believed rumour all too quickly.

A Herald announces Agamemnon's return. There is discussion about the horrors faced by the soldiers during the war. He also reports of Menelaus' misfortune and how he was caught in a storm on the journey home.

Clytemnestra declares joy at the thought of her husband's return. 

The Chorus discuss Helen and the part she had to play in the trouble.

Agamemnon arrives with Cassandra, a priestess of Apollo that he has enslaved as his concubine.

The central action of the play is the agon between Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. During this interaction, Clytemnestra plays the loyal and loving wife.

She persuades her husband to enter his palace by walking over a purple/red tapestry. Even though he feels guilty about committing hubris, Agamemnon is persuaded by Clytemnestra and walks all over the tapestry.

Cassandra is suddenly possessed by Apollo. She has been silent up until this point.

She seems to ramble un-understandable words. After a time she starts to make sense. She engages in a discussion with the Chorus about whether she should enter the palace too, even though she knows that she will be killed. [Apollo had previously cursed Cassandra by giving her the power to see exactly the path of the future but being believed by absolutely nobody.]

Cassandra gives a speech in which she talks about the many gruesome things that will happen to the House of Atreus. She is so clear about these things that it is almost like she has witnessed them herself.

She eventually enters the palace knowing what her fate will be.

The Chorus of Elders are confused and scared. They hear the screams of Agamemnon inside the palace and frantically try to decide on what they should do.

The dead bodies of Agamemnon and Cassandra are revealed along with Clytemnestra holding the murder weapon. She is defiant in her actions.

She explains that she killed Agamemnon in a similar way to how an animal would be killed for sacrifice - with three blows, the last given while reciting a prayer to the gods.

Aegisthus arrives on the scene and gives a speech full of arrogance; he is now the King. The Chorus are incredibly angry with his attitude.

Clytemnestra stops the dispute by saying there should be no more blood spilled on such a day.

The play ends with the Chorus reminding Aegisthus and Clytemnestra that Orestes is still alive and that he was sure to return and avenge his father.

LIBATION BEARERS (CHOEPHOROI)

Orestes and Pylades arrive at the grave of Agamemnon.

Orestes places a lock of hair on the tomb.

The two men hide as Electra arrives at the grave, along with a group of women. Clytemnestra has sent them to the grave in an attempt to appease the gods and comply with burial rites, and to avoid being avenged by Orestes.

Electra sees the locks of hair and notices how similar they are to her own. She also sees two sets of footprints and considers that one set are similar to her own size.

Orestes and Pylades reveal themselves. Orestes persuades his sister of his true identity.

The Chorus, Orestes and Electra conjure the spirit of Agamemnon to help them in their revenge.

Orestes questions why Clytemnestra had cared enough to send offerings to Agamemnon's tomb and the Chorus explain that she had dreamed that she had given birth to a snake. That snake fed from her breast and drew not only milk, but blood. She considered that this might be a warning from the gods and so sent funeral offerings to the tomb with her daughter.

Orestes and Pylades, disguised as travellers, ask for hospitality in the palace. They go so far as to tell Clytemnestra that her son is dead.

Clytemnestra is delighted and calls for Aegisthus. When he arrives, Orestes reveals his true identity and kills Aegisthus.

Orestes' next decision is very difficult; in order to avenge his father he must kill his mother. He struggles with his decision.

Clytemnestra bears her breast and pleads with her son that he take pity on the woman who gave birth to him. Orestes asks Pylades whether he should be feeling so much shame about killing his mother. Pylades assures him that murder is the correct thing to happen and that his friend must not forget his duty.

Orestes almost immediately carries out the act of killing his mother.

He leaves the palace and is haunted by the Furies. Orestes is hugely panicked and flees. 

The Chorus conclude that the cycle of vengeance has not stopped with the death of Clytemnestra and that one murder must be punished by another.

EUMENIDES

The Furies continue to torment Orestes. He finds refuge in a Temple to Apollo in Delphi. The god is unable to protect him but sends him to Athens under the protection of Hermes.

The Furies are approached by the ghost of Clytemnestra and she encourages them to continue their search for Orestes.

The Chorus of Furies arrives on stage. They seek the scent of Orestes' blood.

Orestes supplicates a statue of Athena once he arrives in Athens but the Furies find him all the same. They are able to see drops of blood on the ground where Orestes has walked.

Athena intervenes and brings in a Jury to judge her supplicant.

Apollo acts as a kind of barrister for Orestes while the Furies act on behalf of the dead Clytemnestra.

During the debate Apollo manages to convince Athena that the man is the more important person in a marriage, and does this by pointing out that Athena was born to Zeus without any involvement of a female.

The Jury is split equally in opinion. She announces that the Orestes will be acquitted of the accusations brought against him because this is what she had earlier said would happen if the votes were equal.  

Athena tries to persuade the Furies that the decision is correct. They are angry but eventually accept the decision when Athena promises to have them honoured in Athens. She also gives them a home in the heart of the city. In return they will look favourably on Athens.

Athena leads the Furies to their new home after declaring that any future tied juries would lead to acquittal because it is best to err on the side of forgiveness than harshness.

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KEY DEFINITIONS (Origins of the Novel Module).

MENIPPEAN SATIRE: - satire usually written in prose  - length and structure similar to the novel - characterised by attacking a mental attitude, rather than an individual - parody is a frequent feature, as is mythological burlesque

ie. Petronius' Satyricon, The Dinner of Trimalchio which combines epic form, tragedy and philosophy with verse and prose.  Another, arguably even better, example is Seneca's Apocolocytosis. 

In Apuleius' Golden Ass, Menippean Satire is combined with comedy. 

FICTION:  - A broad umbrella term that covers a lot of different types of writing.  - i.e. collected short stories, novels, plays, films. - Product of imaginary thinking. 

NOVEL: - A more specific term than fiction, but also a type of fiction. - A novel will tend to be quite lengthy (short stories can't really be called novels for this reason) - Prose, as apposed to verse. - Tends to be the product of imaginary thinking but can be based on true experience.  

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THE WIDOW OF EPHESUS [part of the Satyricon], (Origins of the Novel Module).

This sub-story in the Satyricon takes place after Encolpius and his friends have found themselves aboard a ship whose captain is a man called Lichas, one of Encolpius' enemies. Also on board the ship is a woman who is obsessed with Giton and who he had been trying to avoid. Having been caught posing as Eumolpus' slaves, they end up in an argument. The story is told by Eumolpus in an attempt to keep the peace between his companions and their various enemies. The story is based on the fickleness and lustfulness of women and is intended to be quite funny to raise spirits. Eumolpus offers to tell the story and all the men are very eager to hear it.

It begins: "A certain matron of Ephesus was so renowned for her chastity that she attracted even the women of the neighbouring communities to come gaze upon her..."

When her husband died she was not content with the normal mourning rituals and followed him into his tomb, still alive herself. She stood guarding his body and weeping over it.

The woman was trying to starve herself so she could join her husband, despite visits from her parents, relatives, matron and the town magistrate. After 5 days she was still in the tomb. 

Her loyal slave girl stayed by her side and, while she mourned, she topped up the oil in her lamp.

Everyone in the city remarked that the widow was the most perfect example of womanhood and loyalty to ones husband.

Meanwhile, the Governor had ordered the crucifixion of criminal bodies near to the grave of the dead husband. 

One night a soldier who had been put in charge of the crucified bodies, to make sure that they were not stolen for burial, heard weeping from the tomb. He went to find out what the noise was about.

He saw a beautiful woman and first thought she was an immortal, but soon realised that she was grieving over the dead body of her husband. 

The soldier brought with him his supper and tried to get the woman to eat it, to save herself from starvation. He urged her to stop mourning because it would not bring her husband back. "The same end awaited everyone, and the same abode." he said.

The woman was shocked by his attempt to console her and tore at her breast even more violently that before.

The woman's slave gave in to temptation first and took some of the wine from the soldier. Once she had been nourished by the food and drink she turned on her mistress and attacked her stubbornness.

With much encouragement and persuasion, the widow too ate bread and drank wine given to her by the soldier. 

As well as encouraging to break her protest, the soldier took away the widow's chaste status too. Urged on by her slave, the widow has sex with the soldier.

The widow remained in the tomb side by side for a number of days because, if any of her friends came along, they would think she had starved to death next to her husband's body.

The soldier bought whatever he could for her during the day and visited her in the tomb every time night fell.

The soldier had become lax and so some of the relatives of one of the crucified prisoners took down a body for burial. 

The soldier is scared about the punishment that will face him. He tells the widow about what has happened. He was sure he was doomed to die so asked that widow that she might allow his body to rest by her husband's if he killed himself. 

The widow could not bear the idea of seeing the two men she loved the most side-by-side in a grave. "I prefer to sacrifice the dead man rather than to kill the one who is alive." she says, and in doing so suggests that her husband's body be placed upon the cross to save the soldier getting into trouble.

Most of the listeners laughed at the story. Giton's admirer placed her lips on his neck. However Lichas did not laugh suggesting that the dead body of the husband should have been taken down and placed back in the tomb and the body of the woman should have taken his place on the cross. Even though everyone else was happy, he was still full of anger.

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APOCOLOCYNTOSIS, SENECA (Origins of the Novel).

- Literally translates as 'the pumpkinification of the divine Claudius.' - The title plays on the process of apotheosis, which is how dead emperors were recognised as gods. - An example of Menippean satire (i.e. prose satires as opposed to verse, combining many different targets of ridicule) - Similar to the novel.  - A lot of the speeches of the gods in Claudius' hearing are sadly missing. - This work is very different for the serious philosophical work of Seneca that we have; it is hard to know for certain whether this was one of his own works or not.

- Seneca had been banished by Claudius so it seems he had personal motives for writing the text. - By the time he was writing, the political climate after the emperor's death may have made it acceptable for such jokes to be made about Claudius. - As well as these personal concerns, there is thought be be a wider concern of Seneca's that the apotheosis was being too widely used. For example, if someone so flawed as Claudius was able to become a god, it seems possible that the people would stop believing in the gods all together. 

Apollo persuades Clotho (the Fate responsible for spinning the thread of human life) to end Emperor Claudius' life.

Apollo walks to Mount Olympus and convinces Hercules to hear his suit for deification in a session of the Divine Senate.

The hearing is going well until one of the previous emperor, Augustus, offers a long list of all the bad things that Claudius has done during his time as emperor. 

Eventually, Claudius' suit is dismissed and Mercury escorts him down to Hades/Hell.

On the way down to Hades, they witness Claudius' own funeral procession. 

The people who are mourning are the ones who were able to bribe Claudius and who enjoyed the unrestrained merrymaking that happened throughout his leadership.

In Hades Claudius is met by all the friends who he had murdered. The drag him away for punishment.

The gods decide to punish Claudius (who seems to have been known for his gambling among other vices) by making him eternally shake dice in an bottomless box, so that every time he tried to throw the dice they would fall out of the bottom and he would have to search for them. 

Suddenly another of Claudius' predecessors turns up. Caligula says that Claudius is one of his ex-slaves and sends him to be a law clerk in the underworld.

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GYGES' RING (Origins of the Novel).

A version of the story is written by Plato in the Republic.

Gyges was a shepherd from Lydia. He was working for the King of Lydia at the time.

After a lot of rain and an earthquake, the ground opened up in the place where Gyges was pasturing. Wondering what it was, he went down inside the chasm.

Inside the chasm was a hollow bronze horse and inside that there was a corpse that seemed greater than a body of mortal stature. On the corpse's hand there was a ring. Gyges took it and left.

All the King's shepherds were due a meeting to tell him how their pasturing was going. At the assembly Gyges was twisting the ring around his finger. 

It just so happened that he turned the main part of the ring towards the palm of his hand. He realised that when he did this, he became invisible to those around him, and when he turned it back he became visible again. "...and when this took place they say that he became invisible [360a] to those who sat by him and they spoke of him as absent and that he was amazed..."

When the ring was faced inwards, the people around him would talk about him as if he was not there.

As soon as he realised his power he used it so that he became a messenger that got to talk to the King. Once he was with the King he seduced his wife. With her help, Gyges killed the King and took all his possessions, taking the Kingship.

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ANCIENT THEORIES OF FICTION (Origins of the Novel Module).

Aristotle talks about the difference between a poet and a historian: 'It is not the function of the poet to relate what has happened but what may happen - what is possible according to the law of probability or necessity. The poet and the historian differ not by writing in verse or in prose...The true difference is that one relates what has happened, the other what may happen." 

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SATYRICON, PETRONIUS (Origins of the Novel Module).

This work is narrated by one central figure, former gladiator Encolpius. Unfortunately not all of the text is intact.

Encolpius has been travelling with a former lover, Ascyltos. 

Encolpius' slave boy, Giton, is supposed to be in Encolpius' lodging when the story beings. Giton is referred to as 'brother' throughout the text which suggests that he was actually Encolpius' lover.

The first thing we know for sure (because we actually have the passage remaining) is that Encolpius is in a town called Campania and is standing outside a school. He is rallying against the style of teaching that he blames for a fashion of declamatory eduction. This style is called Asiatic and he believed it to be promoting a false taste in literature.

He is debating against a sophist called Agamemnon who is shifting the blame from the teachers to the parents of the students.

Once he realises that Ascyltos has left him, Encolpius moves away from the debate. He finds Ascyltos and Giton. Giton is saying that Ascyltos has made a sexual move on him. There is a debate about the allegation but eventually the three go to the town.

In the town they are involved in an argument about stolen property.

They go back to their dwellings where they are met by a woman called Quartilla. 

Quartilla accuses them of prying on the cult secrets of Priapus. She is a devotee to the cult. [Priapus was a minor rustic fertility god; a humorously obscene character with a permanent oversized erection].

Quartilla overpowers the companions and sexually assaults them. She feeds them dinner and then continues with further sexual exploits. An orgy ensues. 

Quartilla and Encolpius kiss and end up spying on Giton through a key hole. The boy is having sex with a slave girl. Quartilla and Encolpius end up sleeping together.

TRIMALCHIO'S DINNER

This scene is said to be in the style of Menippean Satire. Events take place a few days after the first episode.

Encolpius and his companions are invited to the banquet along with Agamemnon. 

It is in the house of Trimalchio, a wealthy freedman who showed off about his wealth by throwing outrageous banquets and buying hugely expensive possessions and property.

Trimalchio brings his guests round his baths before taking them to the dining room. The courses of food that are served allow Trimalchio to show off his wealth. He tries to show off his knowledge but actually much of what he says is ill-informed.

Trimalchio is incontinent and has to go to the toilet a lot. This allows time for his guests to engage in conversation between themselves. Most of the guests are freed men too.

Encolpius listens to their stories about the homes, the weather, the education of their children, hard times they have endures, public games and neighbours. This is a brilliant source from Petronius about the day-to-day life of everyday people. It allows him to comment on the pretentiousness of the illiterate and stupidly wealthy of his era.

Trimalchio returns and the courses of food resume. Some food is disguised as other food and some is decorated like zodiac signs.

Agamemnon, who doesn't think much of Trimalchio, begins a debate with him. Trimalchio reveals during the argument that he once saw the sibyl of Cumae who, because of her greatness, was suspended in a jar for all eternity. Supernatural stories about a witch and a werewolf are told.

Conversation lulls. Habinnas, a stone mason, and his wife arrive. The wives of Habinnas and Trimalchio compare jewellery. This seems to inspire Trimalchio to read his will and to give instructions to Habinnas on how his funeral monument should be built upon his death.

Encolpius gets bored and decides that he wants to escape as Trimalchio and his guests head to the baths. They are stopped from running away by a porter. They only escape after Trimalchio holds a mock-funeral for himself and the city firemen mistake a horn sound for the sound of an alarm suggesting a fire had started. Encolpius and his companions flee from the house as if it were a real fire.

Encolpius returns to his dwellings and drunkenly falls asleep. 

Ascyltos takes advantage of the situation and seduces Giton. 

The next morning Encolpius and Ascyltos argue about what happened the night before and agree to part ways. Encolpius is shocked that Giton choses to stay with Ascyltos.

Encolpius stays in separate lodgings plotting his revenge. He leaves finally, with sword in hand, but is disarmed by a soldier almost immediately.

He visits a picture gallery and meets an old poet called Eumolpus. They talk about how hard things are for each of them. Eumolpus explains how he had been teaching a boy on Pergamon but the youth had got the better of him. The two talk about the decay of art and how painters were not as good as the old masters had once been.

Eumolpus has stones thrown at him. Encolpius invites him to dinner.

Upon returning to his dwelling, Encolpius is greeted by Giton who begs him to take him back as his lover. After some persuasion, Encolpius agrees.

Eumolpus, who has been at the baths, returns home and explains that he has met a man called Ascyltos who is looking for a young boy named Giton. Even though Encolpius choses not to reveal Giton's identity, he and Eumolpus fall into a rivalry over the boy. 

Eumolpus gets into a fight with the other residents of the flat block. Once this has been broken up, Ascyltos arrives with a slave searching for Giton.

Encolpius tells Giton to hide under a bed and, despite threatening to reveal his whereabouts, Eumolpus ends up siding with Giton and Encolpius.

The next scene that still exists has Encolpius, Giton, Eumolpus and his slave Corax, on board a ship. 

Encolpius soon discovers that the captain of the ship is an old enemy called Lichas of Tarentum. Giton also sees a woman who he doesn't want to be revealed to; her name is Tryphaena. They try to disguise themselves at Eumolpus' slaves but are spotted anyway.

Eumolpus speaks in their defence but, before peace is reached, fighting occurs.

To maintain order and calm, Eumolpus tells the story of The Widow of Ephesus. 

The ship is wrecked in a storm. Encolpius, Giton and Eumolpus reach the shore safely but Lichas is washed up dead.

The travellers find out that they are in a place called Crotona, a place where the inhabitants are known legacy-hunters. 

Eumolpus says he is happy to take advantage of this and so poses as a childless, sickly but rich old man. The others pose as his slaves.

They travel towards the city and on the journey Eumolpus lectures about the importance of poetry with elevated content. He recites a poem of almost 300 lines about the Civil War, Julius Caesar and Pompey. When they arrive in the city, the legacy-hunters are hospitable.

The next time we join the text it appears that the travellers have been in Crotona for quite some time.

A maid called Chrysis flirts with Encolpius and leads him to her beautiful mistress called Circe.

Circe asks Encolpius for sex but he has become incompetent and can't give her what she wants.

Encolpius tries to remedy his problem by not sleeping with Giton.

When he next meets with Circe who brings with her an enchantress, Proselenos, who attempts a magical cure. It doesn't work so Circe has both him and Chrysis flogged.

Having considered actually cutting off his penis, Encolpius prays to Priapus at his temple for healing. 

Proselenos and another priestess, Oenothea, arrive. Oenothea says she is sure she can provide Encolpius with a cure. She begins to cook.

While they cook in another room, Encolpius is attacked by the temple's sacred geese and he kills one of them. Oenothea is upset but Encolpius pacifies her with money.

Oenothea rips out the goose's liver and uses it to predict Encolpius' future.

After she has done this, she reveals a leather dildo. The women apply various irritants to it in preparation for penetrating Encolpius' anus with it. 

Encolpius flees.

The following fragments let us know that Chrysis falls in love with Encolpius.

One of the legacy hunters, an ageing woman called Philomena, leaves her son and daughter with Eumolpus for education.

Eumolpus makes love to the daughter but, because he has said that he is ill, he 'requires' the help of his slave Corax.

Encolpius reveals that he has been cured of his impotence.

Encolpius warns Eumolpus that the legacy hunters are getting frustrated because the wealth Eumolpus promised them was not apparent. 

Eumolpus' will is read out to the legacy hunters, who seem to believe he has died, and they learn that they can't inherit anything from him unless they eat his body.