hello!! i am an a level student living in the uk :D
i take maths, fm, cs, and chemistry and im hoping to study cs at uni!!
as well as doing all the fun tumblr stuff on here i will also post longer articles that i wrote myself on different topics that interest me so keep an eye out for those <3
No wallflowers here! This pair of galaxies is ādancingā and ātwirlingā! They are in the process of merging.
When galaxies are close enough, their mutual gravitational pull can dominate and draw them together over billions of years. This pair, known as NGC 3256, was observed by the Hubble Space Telescope.
Irregular featuresālike long tails, asymmetrical structures, and two bright coresāare telltale signs of a merger. (NGC 3256 has two cores, but theyāre hard to pick out due to the brown dust.)
WHY DO I DO WORK AT THE SPEED OF A SNAIL. EVERYONE IS LIKE wow u spend so much time working! what dedication YEAH IT'S BC MY WPM IS LIKE 0.5 I DON'T CHOOSE THIS LIFE
fuuuuck i just realized that the future idealized version of myself cant exist without current me being the catalyst for change and doing hard things. has anybody heard about this
I just found out I'm gonna have to leave the United States.
Long post incoming. You have been warned.
Hey all. You all probably have different levels of knowledge about who I am, what I do, etc, so lemme catch you all up. I'm Ryan. I'm from SĆ£o Paulo, Brazil. At the age of 17, I was accepted to study biochemistry at UCLA. I left SĆ£o Paulo, the only place I had ever lived in, and moved to the US in 2021 to start my biochemistry degree. After 4 years of hard work, I'm graduating this week. I always planned to stay in the US after graduation to work, get my PhD in chemistry, and just live my life.
And I was on my way to do that, until you-know-who walked into office a few months ago. That was when my entire field started being absolutely gutted. My professors were fired. PhD programs stopped existing. My hardest working friend in my major was accepted to UCLA's biochem PhD program and had her acceptance rescinded due to lack of funding. She was absolutely devastated. Like me, like the rest of us, all she wanted to do was be a scientist.
All the post-graduation jobs that I applied to stopped existing. I was hoping to get a student visa extension, which can be done if you get a job in your field post graduation. I was on my way to do that. I got some job interviews, most of which went really well. But none of that mattered, because those entire programs vanished into thin air. I checked in on applications to jobs I was more than qualified for, only to find out they had stopped existing altogether.
For the last year, I've worked in a biochemical engineering research lab, and things have been disappearing from the lab too. Reagents that we need no longer being affordable. The lyophilizer broke and was never fixed. The research we do is on drug delivery systems. I was working on self-assembling drugs that could've become active once in target cells. But my lab, like many others, suddenly became starved of resources and funding. The lab, my absolute favorite place in the world, just couldn't sustain as many experiments and students as it once did.
I slowly came to the realization that getting a job wasn't enough for me to stay in the US. Even if I did get a job, the chances of me being laid off unexpectedly were very high, and I'd have to scramble to go back to Brazil. I'd always be low on the priority list of employees to keep. I'm an entry-level scientist and an immigrant from Latin America. Once funding was cut, I'd be first to go. I'm seeing the writing on the wall and it's telling me there's nowhere left in the US for me to be.
Not to mention the constant fear of being detained by ICE for no reason, or not being able to speak up on any social issues because of constant surveillance. If you've noticed me being more silent than usual on certain world issues, it's not because I've lost my beliefs. It's because I've been living in fear of being unfairly persecuted for what I say. There have been raids at elementary school graduations for fuck's sake. I've always been in the US legally with a valid visa, but that's no longer enough to be safe. Simply existing as a Latina is dangerous. I have no family in the US, they're all back in Brazil. I'm alone in this country. If I got snatched off the street, that'd be it for me.
I did everything right. You're always told that if you work hard, go to college, and get a good degree, you'll be fine. Well, I did that. I aced my high school in SĆ£o Paulo so hard that I was the first person from there to get into UCLA, the #1 public university in the US. I came to UCLA as a biochemistry major, and I stuck through it. Biochem is one of the most dropped majors at UCLA. I got into a research lab, and I'm even winning a commencement award at my graduation this week for excellence in my field. I maintained legal status. No criminal record.
I did everything right, but it wasn't enough. It wasn't enough because I was born in Latin America, and because I wanted to become a scientist in 2025. All I wanted to do was be a biochemist. I always thought that if I didn't get a job, it'd be because there was someone more qualified than me, not because my entire field was getting choked out of existence. Can't say I was expecting that!
So now I'm going to say goodbye to all my friends, sell and donate all my belongings, and go back home with nothing but the same 2 suitcases I brought with me when I left SĆ£o Paulo 4 years ago. Like many of my professors, grad students, and fellow scientists, I was a casualty of the STEM mass murder of 2025. Forgive me if I'm bitter and angsty for the next few weeks or even months. I hope you can understand. Thank you for reading, if you've made it this far.
This is from a study just published a few days ago by Lepeco et al. (2025).
Hell ants (subfamily: Haidomyrmecinae) are super cool ants that possessed vertically closing jaws.
Below is a model of the ant's body/anatomy generated via micro-computed tomography
Vulcanidris cratensis is a new species discovered in Brazil. It dates back to the lower Cretaceous, and at the time of writing, is now the oldest known ant to science!
As you may have guessed, I love cryptography and ciphers even though I still donāt know much about them. I think classical ciphers are super interesting stuff and I love breaking them but I realised I knew nothing cipher-y after the end of World War 2, so I sought to rectify that!
(This is SO long - I got quite carried away (I do apologise), and as I wanted to cover so much here there are some concepts I donāt explain very thoroughly, but there are so many resources online if you want to learn more! When explaining how different forms of encryption work, I will often use the names commonly used by other cryptographers in my examples. Alice and Bob are two people trying to communicate, while Eve (an eavesdropper) is trying to intercept their messages.)
Symmetric Encryption
The start of modern cryptography is not a definite thing (obviously so, as the āerasā of cryptography are just labels people use to refer to them generally) but I decided to start my timeline for modern cryptography in the 1960s, as during this time, research projects at the American company IBM (International Business Machines) led to the creation of a cipher called the Lucifer cipher.Ā
This cipher was one of the first block ciphers to be made. A block cipher is a cipher that operates on blocks of 128 bits at a time. This is in contrast to a stream cipher, which encrypts 1 bit of data at a time. (In a way, you could consider classical ciphers stream ciphers) If the plaintext (un-encrypted data) is smaller than 128, padding schemes will add random data to it to make it up to 128. Modes of operation define how large amounts of data are encrypted. For example, the blocks of data can be encoded separately, or maybe the encryption of one block is affected by the previous encoded block of data.
The Lucifer cipher underwent a lot of alterations, and eventually the National Bureau of Standards adopted this altered version of Lucifer as the Data Encryption Standard, or DES, in 1977. Some of the alterations made that led to DES were actually quite controversial! For example, the key size in Lucifer was 128 bits, but only 56 in DES, which worried people who thought it would have been easier to brute force as it was shorter. Itās actually rumoured that the NSA (National Security Agency) did this so that the DES wasnāt too strong for them to break. Another change they added was the inclusion of something called S-boxes, which are effective at protecting against a form of attack called differential cryptanalysis. What I found really cool was that its effectiveness wasnāt talked about until much after, which suggests that the NSA knew about differential cryptanalysis 13 years before this information went public!
The DES is no longer secure enough for modern use, and in 2001 was replaced by the AES, or the Advanced Encryption Standard, which is its direct successor and is still used today. The reason that AES is more secure than DES is that the algorithm itself is more complex, but more importantly it uses longer key lengths. Using keys that are 128, 192, or 256-bit long means that the encryption is much stronger than using the 56-bit DES.
Lucifer, DES, and AES are all symmetric ciphers as well as being block ciphers. This means that the key used to encrypt the plaintext is the same key that is used to decrypt the data. Only some block ciphers are known publicly. DES and AES are the most famous of the lot, but other ones such as IDEA, Twofish, and Serpent exist too.Ā
As a whole, encrypting with block ciphers is slower as the entire block must be captured to encrypt or decrypt, and if just 1 mistake is made the whole block can be altered. But, they are stronger than other ciphers. Each mode of operation also has its own pros and cons. If each block is encoded by itself then they can be encrypted in parallel (which is faster), but itās prone to cryptoanalysis as two identical blocks of plaintext would produce two identical blocks of ciphertext, therefore revealing patterns. The other ways are much more complex and take more time to encrypt but are more secure.Ā
For symmetric encryption to be used, both parties need to agree on the same key for the message to be shared secretly, which is a massive problem. How can the key be transferred securely?
Key Exchange
A year before the implementation of DES, in 1976, another massive breakthrough was made. Researchers Whitfield Hellman and Martin Diffie created the Diffie-Hellman key exchange, which was a method to share encryption and decryption keys safely across an unsecured network. The way it works depends on one-way functions. Typically in maths, most functions are two-way, as using a function on a number is pretty easy to undo. However, Hellman and Diffie found out that while multiplying two prime numbers was very easy, factorising the product down to its primes again was excruciatingly difficult, and the difficulty only increases as the numbers get bigger.
Say Alice and Bob are trying to share a key using the Diffie-Hellman exchange. Firstly, both of them need to execute a function in the form G^a mod P. P must be prime, and G and P are shared publicly so Alice and Bob can agree on them. The numbers are massive (usually 2048 bits) to make it harder to brute force, and they are generated randomly. Alice and Bob each choose different numbers for a, and run their functions. They will get different answers and they share their answers with each other publicly. (This is the public key) Then, Alice and Bob run another function in the form G^a mod P, but G is set to the other personās answer. The value of a and P stay the same, and Alice and Bob arrive at the same secret answer. The secret answer can then be used to encrypt the message! (This is the private key)
Now, letās say Eve wanted to find out what the key was. She intercepts their messages, but even though she has the exact information Alice and Bob shared with each other, she doesnāt know what the secret key is unless she solved the original equation, making this key exchange very secure! Modular arithmetic (the mod P part of the equation) is notoriously hard to reverse. If 2048-bit numbers are used, then brute forcing it requires 2^2048 numbers.
Asymmetric Encryption
The Diffie-Hellman key exchange was huge - I mean, any technology created 50 years ago thatās still in use must be pretty good, but it really only shone for sharing keys, not for encryption. For example, the issue with sending communication such as emails using Diffie-Hellman was that both parties needed to be online for a key to be generated as information needs to be mutually shared in the process, so you couldnāt just send an email using it whenever you wanted, which was a shame. However, one particular thing it did lead to was the invention of asymmetric encryption.
In 1977, the idea of public key cryptography (also invented by Diffie) came to fruition in the form of RSA. Named after its creators (Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman), the RSA works by all users having a public key, which is accessible by everyone, so anyone wanting to send that user a message just needed to search for it. The sender encrypts the message with the recipientās public key, and then when the recipient comes online they are able to decrypt it with their own private key thatās not shared with anyone. It also uses an one-way function like the Diffie-Hellman exchange, albeit a more complex one. RSA is still used today for things like sending messages or visiting secure websites, and the keys tend to be 2048 or 4096 bits long so that they are hard to break. 1024-bit RSA was disallowed in 2013.
Encrypting via public key and decrypting via private key is great for keeping sensitive information safe, but what if you encrypted with your private key and the message was decrypted with your public key? The purpose of this encryption is to prove the sender is who they say they are - if the public key canāt decrypt the message then either the wrong key was used or the message has been meddled with in transit. To keep the message secure the sender could encrypt with their private key and also the recipientās public key so only they could decrypt and read it. If the message is particularly long, the digital signature can be applied to a hash of the original message, rather than the whole thing. The RSA was the first to have this dual functionality.
So, there we go - the two main encryption types used today: symmetric and asymmetric. Symmetric encryption is useful for large amounts of data in particular, while asymmetric is more secure, but is slower and requires more resources and therefore can be more expensive. In practice, many secure systems will use both symmetric and asymmetric ciphers. Although, the actual security of a message comes down to the length of the key used - the longer or more complex it is, the more secure the encryption is. As the number of bits increases, the total number of arrangements for these bits increases exponentially. The IBM website states that a 56-bit key could be brute forced in around 400 seconds, a 128-bit key would take 1.872 x10^37Ā years, while a 256-bit key would take 3.31 x10^56 years.
Going Quantum
It goes without mention as to how important modern cryptography is. These encryption methods are used to keep confidential information such as credit card details, messages, and passwords safe for users like you and me, but also maintains government security on a national level. Itās also vital for cryptocurrency and digital signatures (as mentioned before), as well as browsing secure websites.
A big threat to current cryptographic standards is the development of quantum computing, which are computers based on principles of quantum mechanics. I wonāt go into detail on how quantum computers work, but using quantum mechanics they are able to do massive numbers of calculations simultaneously. Although quantum computers already exist, they arenāt powerful or capable enough to threaten our current encryption algorithms yet. But, researchers suggest that they could be able to within a decade. People could use a technique called āstore now, decrypt laterā, where they keep currently encrypted messages so that they can decrypt them when quantum computers are available. This could cause many problems in the future, particularly if they involve secrets on an international level.
Quantum mechanics can also be used in cryptography as well! Quantum cryptography, originally theorised in 1984 by Charles Bennett and Gilles Brassard, can be used to exchange keys even more securely than Diffie-Hellman, and is called QKD, or Quantum Key Distribution. The reason itās so incredible is that data thatās secured using it is immune to traditional cryptographic attacks. Now, Iām no quantum physicist (or any type of physicist!) but I will try my best to explain how it works. It works by sending photons, which are light particles, from the sender (eg. Alice) to the receiver (eg. Bob). These photons are sent at different orientations and Bob can measure the photonās polarisation when he gets them.
Letās say that photons can be in a vertical, horizontal, or one of the two diagonal orientations. We can pass them through a polarised filter to find out what orientation they are in. The filters are also specifically oriented. A vertical filter would let the vertical photons through, block the horizontal ones, and let the diagonal ones in 50% of the time but at the cost of the ones that pass through being reoriented. Therefore, when a particular photon successfully passes through, itās impossible to know whether it was originally diagonal or vertical. This is important as it means that itās possible to detect if someone else has been eavesdropping as the polarisations would have been changed.
Bob can use two measurement bases to receive the photons Alice sent. One will capture vertical and horizontal orientations, and one will capture diagonal ones. Bob has no idea what orientation Alice used for each photon, so he switches between his bases randomly, and will get it wrong some of the time. This is fine, as Alice and Bob then compare to see which ones Bob got right, and the ones he correctly guessed are used as a key (each photon representing 1 bit). The key can then be used for other encryption methods, such as AES.
The reason this works is that if Eve wanted to pry, she has to guess which base to use as well when she intercepts the photons (so she will also make mistakes), but she has no way of checking whether her records are correct or not, unlike Bob. Itās impossible for her to obtain the key as well. Whatās more, when she guesses wrong she will change the photon polarisation, so Alice and Bob know that sheās eavesdropping.
Quantum cryptography would have huge security benefits if implemented on a wide scale due to its ability to prevent eavesdroppers, and the fact that it would be resistant to quantum computers. However, it is still in development. One key drawback is the specific infrastructure that is needed, and fiber optic cables have a limited range. This means that the number of destinations the data could be sent to is limited, and the signal cannot be sent to more than 1 recipient at any time.
As well as quantum cryptography, the NIST (The National Institute of Standards and Technology) and other cryptographers are working on other cryptographic algorithms that would stay secure even in the face of quantum computers. Ideas include lattice-based cryptography, hash-based cryptography, and code-based cryptography among others but none of them are at a point where they can actually be implemented yet.
However, one new idea that isnāt post-quantum but is gaining traction is Elliptic Curve Cryptography. Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) is a form of asymmetric encryption that uses different points on an elliptic curve graph to generate keys in a more efficient manner than traditional methods. It creates shorter encryption keys, which means that less resources are needed while making the keys harder to break simultaneously. Improving the security of current systems just involves lengthening the keys, which slows down the encryption/decryption process, so the fact that ECC doesnāt need to do this gives it a big advantage. It is already used by the US government, iMessage, and Bitcoin, among others.Ā
Sidenotes
With the maths of these encryption methods being so strong, one key vulnerability is the people that utilise these methods, which is no surprise. Side channel attacks are a way to break cryptography by using information physically leaked from it. One attack, called a TEMPEST attack, is a technique that can pick up electromagnetic transmissions from a device as far as 300m away. These are often done by the FBI, but honestly can be done quite easily by some nerd who has some money to spare and can sit in a car outside your window. By monitoring the radiation emitted from your computer screen, the attacker can spy on you and your data. Another thing that can be monitored is your power consumption. Cryptography is energy intensive, and this attack has been able to recover RSA private keys in testing. Other forms of attacks include measuring amount of time required to encrypt data, which can perhaps be used to find factors or exponents. To combat this, encryption methods can add timing noise as a countermeasure. Or, an attacker can listen to someone type to find out their passwords, but to distinguish different key presses a sophisticated machine learning model is needed. Side channel attacks have actually been around for ages but its use has been severely limited in that the attacker needs to be physically close to the victim. They could get easier with time, however, as smartphones and drones can act as microphones remotely.
Another cool thing I havenāt covered yet are hash functions, which can take in an input and map it to a string of characters thatās random but unique to the original data. The output is called a hash digest or hash value. A good hash function will mean that no two different inputs will have the same hash value, and all outputs are the same length, making it hard to guess original text length. Itās vital for digital signatures and storing passwords securely.
Finally, if anyone managed to get to the end, then thank you! I really love cryptography and I find it astounding that weāve been able to develop it into such a complex yet intrinsic part of daily life. Honestly, I had so much fun researching for this post! Encryption and cybersecurity and the future of computing is so interesting and Iām really glad I decided to write this :)
Final final note you should totally go and read the Code Book by Simon Singh! Trust me trust me itās so good...
BJ has a very clear understanding of Objectives unfortunately he lacks that level of comprehension when it comes to tactics methods procedures etc. Thus: his Behaviors.
