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JBB: An Artblog!
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Psychology - General - Evaluation - Pictures
Psychology - General - Evaluation - Picture
Topic 1: Cells - Discuss Possible Exceptions to the Cell Theory
Although the Cell Theory is a universally accepted theory, there are a few exceptions to the principles that outline the cell theory. Examples of this are for example skeletal muscle fibers, which are atypical cells; they are larger, and have a multinucleate cytoplasm. Fungal hyphae are sometimes not divided into individual cells, making an exception to the principle that all living things are made up of cells. Unicellular organisms can also be considered acellular because they are larger than a typical cell and carry out all life functions.
Another exception is that some tissues or organs contain large amounts of extracellular material, for example the vitreous humour of the eye, mineral deposits in the bone and xylem in trees. Another exception are red blood cells, which do not contain nuclei once they have matured.
The principle that all cells come from pre-existing cells has an exception when considering the origin of life. All cells must have risen out of non-living substances in the origin of life, since early earth conditions were anaerobic.
Matthias Schleiden (1804-1881) is often named the founder of the Cell Theory. Theodor Schwann (1810-1882) has also contributed to the cell theory. The Modern Cell Theory consists of conclusions taken both from Schleiden and Schwann. The modern cell theory outlines that the cell is the unit of structure and function in all living things and that cells arise from other cells via division (meiosis and mitosis). Cells also contain hereditary information, which is passed on during division (DNA, chromosomes). All cells are basically the same in chemical composition. All energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.
Topic 1 - Cells: Obj. 3 Discuss Evidence for the Cell Theory
The cell theory states that all living things are made of one or more cells, that the cell is the smallest unit of life and that all cells come from pre-existing cells.
Evidence for the first principle of the cell theory; that all living things are made of cells has been shown by for example observations made by microscopists through light and electron microscopy. These observations have proven that all living things are either unicellular or multicellular. The observations have also proven that cells are the smallest unit of life.
The second principle, namely that the cell is the smallest unit of life and that nothing smaller than a cell can survive independently is shown by how cells come from pre-existing cells through cell division. Pasteur’s observations on the behavior of cells at division (meiosis and mitosis) have further proven this principle. Evidence for the fact that cells contain their own blueprint for growth, development and behavior comes from observations on the behavior of chromosomes and from the establishment of the nature of genes. All cells also contain DNA, which further ratifies this principle.
Cells are also the site for chemical reactions of life which is supported by the discovery of enzymes, biochemical events that occur in cells (e.g. protein synthesis) and the cell ultrastructure (there is a presence of organelles and biochemical events occur in particular organelles)
Fidel Castro's Cuba: Background
Cuban Independence With the aid of the USA, Cuba shook off Spanish rule in the Spanish-American War (1898). The Treaty of Paris (1898) between Spain and the USA granted territories of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to the USA in exchange for money. Spain also lost sovereignty over Cuba, which was placed under military occupation by the USA for five years. In 1902, the Republic of Cuba was declared. By the Platt Amendment annexed to the Cuban constitution, the USA kept the right to intervene in Cuban finances and foreign relations. IT aimed at preventing the influence of third-party countries in Cuba and guaranteeing US control of Cuban affairs.
Economic and Social Aspects The USA’s interests in Cuba were protected by policies that benefitted American investments. Cuba was a monoculture economy (the agricultural practice of producing or growing one single crop over a wide area). It also produced tobacco, coffee and rice, but sugar was its main export and provided the most important income for the republic. Washington bought a significant percentage of Cuban sugar production at higher prices than those set by the international market. In exchange, Cuba was to give preferential access to American products. The development of Cuban service and utility industries relied on US investment. There were economic benefits for Cuba in this agreement, but it meant that Cuba was to be tied to the USA. If Washington decided to reduce the quantity of sugar bought from Cuba, the economy of the island would be seriously affected. There was a better standard of living in Cuba than in other areas in the region, but many social and economic problems affected them.
Political Aspects Between independence and revolution, Cuba was led by governments that showed high levels of corruption. By 1934 armed forces under general Fulgencio Batista’s rule controlled the nation by appointment of puppet Presidents. In 1940, Batista himself became President, ruling until 1944. From 1944-1952 there was a return to democracy, but corruption dominated the government and Cuba faced inflation and unemployment. In March, 1952, Batista returned and overthrew the president Socarrás. He suspended the constitution to rule as a dictator.
The Rule of Fulgencio Batista One reason why the Cuban economy worsened was the decline of sugar prices on the international sugar market. Cuba found it more expensive to purchase imported goods . This was known as the deterioration of the terms of trade (relationship between the prices at which a country sells its exports and the prices paid for its imports). The rise in cost of imports led to shortages and inflation. Opposition to Batista’s regime intensified. Rural workers did not support it due to their lower quality of life. Higher social classes, who lost their purchasing power, also opposed Batista. Opposition was, however, disorganized and lacked a leading figure.
The Rise of Opposition to Batista Cuban political parties did not seem to offer a genuine alternative to the existing order. The Authentic Party and Orthodox Party were the two main political parties in Cuba before the revolution. Communists were represented by the PSP; the popular socialist party.
Partido Autentico (Authentic Party): Founded in 1934, defended the rights of workers to be represented by trade unions. Nationalism expressed in the motto: “Cuba for the Cubans”
Partido Ortodoxo (Orthodox Party): Born from a split of the Authentic Party, founded in 1948. Party’s motto: Integrity against Money. Played an important role in the denunciation of corruption in Cuban politics and its aims were to end corruption and to nationalize US-owned companies. Fidel Castro was a member until he formed his own organization, the 26th July Movement.
Partido Socialista Popular (Popular Socialist Party): Cuba’s communist party, founded in 1925 and banned from participating in elections several times.
HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS: Explain the role that culture plays in the formation and maintenance of relationships
Culture is a defining factor for why relationships are formed and maintained. A striking difference in the nature of interpersonal relationships is found when comparing individualist cultures to collectivist cultures. Generally speaking, western countries tend to fall into the category of individualist cultures whereas eastern countries tend to follow traditions related to collectivist cultures. Individualist cultures emphasize individuals and their goals, rights, attitudes and needs whereas collectivist cultures place importance on the group and its goals, rights, attitudes and needs. Cultural norms therefore highly affect the reasons why we seek out relationships and the nature of these relationships.
There is a strong social norm of monogamous relationships in individualist cultures, which can be seen from the laws present in Western countries, whereas Eastern cultures tend to accept polygamous relationships. Individualist cultures emphasize voluntary choice in relationships, due to both the greater availability of relationships and the notions of romantic love. Contrastingly, collectivist cultures have a lack of voluntary of choice because there is a lack of availability of relationships and because interpersonal relationships include obligations to family and social norms. In collectivist cultures, marriage is supposed to take into consideration the wishes of others, such as the families of the married couple. There is a tendency for the relationship to be more governed by group need whereas in individualist cultures relationships are governed by individual needs.
While western cultures typically hold love as a prerequisite for marriage, individualist cultures expect that love will develop during the marriage. There is evidence that this occurs within arranged marriages, as shown by Gupta and Singh’s study in 1992. Their aim was to study the differences in relationships between people in arranged and love marriages. The method used was a questionnaire – “Rubin’s love scale”. 50 participants were recruited in Jaipur in India, some of which were in arranged marriages and the others were in love marriages. They completed the Rubin’s love scale measurement at various points in time after getting married.
Gupta and Singh found that those who were in arranged marriages felt less love at the start of their marriage than those who had married for love. However, the couples in arranged marriages showed an increase in love during their first five years of marriage, and this new level of love was maintained when asked to complete a questionnaire five years later, ten years into their marriage. In love marriages, the degree of love began at a higher level which was maintained over the first five years. However, after ten years it had fallen well below the level of love experienced by those in arranged marriages. The study suggested that love is likely to develop and be maintained in arranged marriages but this is likely to decrease after a certain period in love marriages.
It is important to note that Gupta and Singh’s study focused on Indian individuals. The cultural norms in India are generally collectivist, and arranged marriages are a popular form of relationship formation. This may have affected the findings in the study, since all of the participants were somehow affiliated to the collectivist culture. However, what makes the findings of the aforementioned study valuable is that it supports the point that arranged marriages are initiated by something other than love, and that love tends to develop as the marriage develops.
Methodologically, the study lacks ecological validity since a love-scale was used to determine the extent of which the participants were in love. Love is a very subjective emotion, and therefore it is impossible to measure accurately. It is also important to note that there are many definitions of love and the questions included in the Rubin’s love-scale questionnaire may have only focused on one of them.
Although there seems to be an emphasis on the arrangement of relationships based on social norms in collectivist cultures, Duck (1999) argues that individualist cultures also show emphasis on social needs in the formation of relationships. Social position, wealth, opportunities and class come into play in the formation of relationships in individualist cultures. According to Duck’s theory, therefore, it seems that the formation and maintenance of relationships in western and eastern cultures is not as different as is perceived. Although it appears that people within an individualistic Western culture have more of a choice as to who they form romantic relationships with, the existence of outside pressures may influence relationship choices more than what is perceived.
Buss’ questionnaire study (1994) on relationships seems to support the idea that cultural attitudes toward relationships are strikingly similar. Buss’ aim was to see what men and women look for in a partner depending on their culture. A questionnaire method was used to obtain the data. There were more than 10,000 participants representing 37 cultures who answered the questionnaires.
Buss found that the cultures shared similar desires and expectations from relationships. In 36/37 of the cultures, women ranked financial prospects as more important than men did. In all 37 of the cultures, men generally preferred younger partners whereas women preferred older ones. In a majority of the cultures (23/37), males rated chastity as more important than women did. The degree of agreement in sex differences across cultures suggested to Buss, that selection preferences in relationships are universal and arise from different evolutionary selection pressures on males and females. Although the similarities in the findings were striking, there were also some differences between cultures. For instance, USA ranked love first, whereas in Iran, love ranked third, in Nigeria, it ranked fourth and in China love ranked sixth whereas good health, chastity and domestic skills ranked high. This suggests that there still exists a difference in the values that lead people to form and maintain relationships across cultures and supports the idea that individualist/western cultures place a higher value on the idea of romantic love whereas in eastern cultures romantic love is not regarded with the importance that social roles are.
In evaluation of Buss’ study, the methodology used suggests a lack of reliability of the results. The use of questionnaires may have prompted people to answer according to what they believed the researcher’s expected answers were. There is, in other words, a lack of ecological validity that arises due to the use of questionnaires. However, questionnaires are a time-efficient alternative when evaluating differences among cultures and therefore it made sense to use in the given study.
The study is valuable in the sense that it provided insight into the similarities of cultural values in relationships whereas a lot of other studies focus on the differences among cultures in relationship goals.
Another important consideration in regard to Buss’ study is that it was conducted 20 years ago. Because culture is a changing phenomenon, the values that existed twenty years ago may have changed today and have become more dissipated globally due to e.g. globalization and exposure to other cultures.
Goodwin (1995) studied how changing times may affect cultural values especially regarding relationships through interviews. After the fall of the communist regime, people of different ages and backgrounds were interviewed in Russia. Goodwin found that individualistic relationship values were found among the young and affluent. More collectivist values were found among older people and manual workers. The speed with which new individualistic values were being adopted was seen as causing problems between the different sections of society. Goodwin concluded that times of change may bring about a shift in values, including attitudes towards relationships, thus changing culture. Rapid change in particular can lead to tensions within societies.
Goodwin’s study points out that culture is subject to changes and that one nation can experience multiple cultures simultaneously. This is a valuable finding as it adds to the understanding of culture. Instead of limiting our definitions of culture as being formed by geographical borders, perhaps it should be seen as a phenomenon that changes among different demographics.
As Gupta and Singh’s study points out, individualist cultures tend to see love as a prerequisite for marriage whereas collectivist cultures expect love to develop within marriage. However, the distinction between collectivist and individualist cultures is useful, but not clear-cut. This is supported by Buss’ study, as its findings showed that people from varying cultures share similar values in regard to relationships. It is also important to note that people may change their personal cultural identities when, for example, moving to a different country. It is even possible for culture within a country to change and develop as society changes, as pointed out by Goodwin’s study. While it appears that culture plays an important role in the nature of romantic relationships there are also other factors to consider, such as evolution, as Buss (1994) points out. Although culture is not always the sole reason why individuals choose a specific partner, it can be concluded that culture motivates individuals to seek out relationships due to social pressures, which can exist both in individualist and collectivist societies.
The Chemistry of Life (Chemical Elements and Water)
The most frequently occuring tly occuring chemicals in living things are oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen.
Oxygen occurs in 65% of living things. It forms two covalent bonds with other atoms. Carbon (19%) forms 4 covalent bnds with other atoms, e.g. CO2, and can form long chains with other carbon atoms. Hydrogen (10%) forms one covalent bond with another atom. Nitrogen (3%) forms three covalent bonds with other atoms (e.g. ammonia, NH3) and is a constituent of proteins and nucleotides (DNA, RNA), many coenzymes, and ATP.
covalent bond = a strong chemical bond in which two atoms share a pair of electrions.
A variety of other elements are needed by living organisms, including calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), sodium (Na), Phosphorus (P), and sulphur (S)
(CaFe NaPS)
Calcium (Ca) Essential element in bones, teeth, shells, nerve function (cell messenger)
In Prokaryotes: Cofactor in some enzyme reactions. In Plants: Cofactor in some enzyme reactions In Animals: Important constituent in bones. Needed in muscle contraction.
Iron (Fe) Essential element in the heme group of haemoglobin - oxygen transport molecule
In Prokaryotes Component of cytochrome pigments In Plants Component of cytochrome pigments In Animals Component of haemoglobin and cytochrome pigments
Sodium (Na) Essential ion in neuron membrane potential, required for nerve impulse transmission. Involved with potassium in sodium-potassium pump.
Important in membranes.Changes solute concentration and affects osmosis. In Plants: Important in membranes. Changes solute concentration and affects osmosis. In Animals: Important in membranes, changes solute concentration and affects osmosis. Also plays an important role in transmission of nerve impulses.
Phosphorus (P) Essential element in nucleotides, including ATP
In Prokaryotes, plants, and animals: Component of ATP and DNA
Sulphur (S)
Essential element in variable group of some amino acids (therefore proteins) causes folding of the polypeptide chain, keeps chains together.
In prokaryotes: Component of two amino acids In plants: Component of two amino acids In animals: Component of two amino acids neeeded for antibodies
CLOA: Evaluate the schema theory with reference to research studies
Schema: "networks of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world."
1. Anderson and Pichert (1978) - Burglar and Buyer study Aim: To investigate if schema processing influences both encoding and retrieval Method: Laboratory Procedure: Participants were told two stories and before hearing the story were primed with one schema at encoding stage and another at retrieval. 1. Participants read a story about two boys who skipped school and spent time in one of their empty houses. The participants were asked to take either the perspective of a burglar or a potential buyer of the house when reading the story. This is how the participants were primed with the schemas.There were 72 aspects in the story, such as a leaky roof or valuables on display. 2. The participants were then given a 12-minute distracting task. 3. Recall I and results: Both groups remembered things relevant for their perspective/schema. 4. 5 minute break 5. A new schema was introduced to one half of the participants (their original schema was switched with the other: the ones in the buyer group were told to think of the story from a burglar's perspective and the ones in the burglar group were told to think of the story from a buyer's perspective.) 6. Recall II and results: There was a change in the schema group since they were able to recall previously unrecalled information relevant to their new schema. In the original schema group fewer points were remembered. Findings: Schema processing influences recall and helps in the process of retrieval. A new schema helps participats remember more. Schemas lead to the selection of information central to the active schema.Irrelevant material prevailing to the schema is also encoded.
2. Brewer and Treyens (1981) : Office schema - guiding memory Aim:To investigate if schemas would guide memory of an office room when participants weren't specifically told their memory was being tested. Method: Laboratory Procedure: Individual participats were asked to wait in an office. They were told that it was the experimenter's office and that they should wait there for 35 seconds. After this, participants were brought into a separate room and were asked to recall everything that had been in the previous room. Findings: Brewer and Treyens found that participants were more likely to remember typical items related to an office schema. Obscure items in the room were also recalled, they stood out. Sometimes false memories were created of items consisted to the schema i.e. books or pencils. The study shows that schemas may induce false memories and brings to attention the fallibility of memory.
3. Bartlett (1932) - War of the Ghosts Aim:To show that memory is reconstructive and that schemas influence recall. Serial reproduction was also exhibited. Method: Laboratory Procedure: Participants were asked to read through a Native American legend twice. After 15 minutes, participants were asked to reproduce the story which was followed up with further requests to reproduce the story. FIndings: It was difficult for people from Western cultures to recall the stories due to their unfamiliar style and content. The general effects of recall were that the story became shorter although it remained coherent and that it also became more conventional. The study suggests that people reconstruct the past by fitting it into existing schemas. The more complicated the information being processed and recalled is, the more likely it is that elements will be forgotten or distorted. Efforts after meaning were also displayed i.e. the attempt to find a familiar pattern in experiences. The findings also suggested that memory is an imaginary reconstruction of experience.
Foreign policy 1920-1930
France - Main pillars of French security in the 1920s a) Security guarantees through alliances rather than reconciliation - Locarno Pact 1925 - Establishment of Little Entente between 1920-7; Poland and Czechoslovakia separately signed a mutual agreement and friendship pact with Frane - French policy emphasises encirclement of Germany b) The Leage of Nations Policy of France was an active, leading member supported disarmament after security disputes were settled Aristides Briand initiated the Kellog-Briand Pact 1928: 65 states signed, agreeing to renounce war as an instrument of national policy. 3 years later Japan invades Manchuria Together with Stresemann he initiated the Europe Plan, which might be seen as a forerunner of the EU. after 1926 reconciliation started.
French struggle for security in 1930's - defensive action the Great Depression affected France heavily and the internal affairs became unstable governments were short-lived after mid-thirties the governments were coalitions of multiple parties (socialists, communists, liberalists) 1933-1935 France became alarmed when Hitler demanded an equal treatment in disarmament issues The French plan was to create a powerful circle around Germany Germany broke this encirclement with the Non-Aggression Pact of 1934 with Poland. Britain, France and Italy agreed in 1934 to oppose any aggression in Europe and formed the Stresa front which ended in 1936 after Italy invaded Ethiopia. The Years of Appeasement 1936-1939 - Caused by internal stability; the Spanish Civil War connection (France feared this war would spread to France), no true promises of help from Britain in case of outbreak of war. - signs of: Delayed ratification of the planned agreement of collaboration with the USSR. Accepted the reintroduction of conscription in Germany, Italy's invasion into Ethiopia was approved (Laval-Hoare pact) no reaction during Germany's occupation of Rhineland. Together with Britain allowed Hitler's annexation of Sudetenland - The Munich Agreement End of appeasement Finally France gave security guarantees to Poland together with Britain The Question of Armaments The French military strategy was based on old fashioned thoughts After 1936 France started a full-forced rearmament program 1939 February Britain and France made a military alliance
Britain Main features in 1920's No binding commitments in Europe, understood French desire for security but was cautious Supported the League of Nations policy of disarmament, assumed to increase security automatically Britains main ocus was on overseas affairs, rapid expansion of Japan threatened The British Government believed they had a special role in world affairs because of the legacy of WWI and largest mpire Britain supported reconciliation entirely The problematic 1930s Britains trust of the LON collective security crumbled after 1934 when Germany and Jpan left the organisation and the World Disarmament Conference failed. After 1935 Britain favored mutual security arrangements THe anglo-german naval agreement ensured that the German navy remained smaller than the British. February 1934- Germany considered a potetial enemy May 1937 -> Neville Chamberlain as Prime Minister Chamberlain saw that Britain had strategic problems if war broke out simultaneously in the Far East and Europe. Solution: Find what the Nazis want and what they would accept as the price of peaace: give it to them before they dragged the continent into war -> appeasement Germanys Anschluss with Austria actualized the Sudeten problem During the Munich conference 1938 Hitler told that once the Sudeten Problem is solved Gemany would have no more territorial ambitions in Europe -> Chamberlain and others agreed to transfer mainly german areas of czechoslovakia to the Reich
Timeline Second World War
Washington Conferences 1921-1922 Genoa Conference 1922 Ruhr Crisis 1923 Dawes Plan 1924 Locarno Plan 1925 Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928 Young Plan 1929 Wall Street Crash 1929 (protectionism) Manchurian Invasion 1931 The World Disarmament Conference – Anschluss 1932 Hitler becomes Chancellor 1933 Night of the Long Knives 1934 Germany refuses to pay indemnities and rebuilds army. Italy invades Abyssinia 1935 Germans occupy Rhineland; Spanish Civil War 1936 Japanese soldiers and officials given freedom to do what they want 1937 The Munich Conference 1938 (Sudetenland -> Areas from Czechoslovakia to Germany, appeasement) Czechoslovakia occupied by Germany 1939 August 23rd the non-aggression pact with Germany and Soviet Union 1939 (+ Secret additional protocol)
September 1st, 1939: Hitler invades Poland 1940: Rationing starts in UK, German blitzkrieg overwhelms Belgium, Holland, France. Churchill becomes Prime Minister. British victory in Battle of Britain forces Hitler to postpone invasion plans. 1941: Hitler begins operation Barbarossa: Invasion of Russia. Blitz continues against Britain’s major cities. Allies take Tobruk in North Africa and resist German attacks Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, US enters the war. 1942: Germany suffers setbacks at Stalingrad and El Alamein. Signapore falls to the Japanese. Mass murder of Jews at Auschwitz begins 1943: Surrender at Stalingrad marks Germany’s first major defeat. Allied victory in North Africa enables invasion of Italy to be launched. Italy surrenders and Germany takes over. 1944: Allies land at Anzio and bomb monestary at Monte Cassino Soviet offensive gathers pace in Eastern Europe D Day: Allied invasion of France -> Paris liberated in August 1945: Auschwitz liberated by Soviet troops. Russians reach Berlin. Hitler commits suicide and Germany surrenders on May 7th. Truman becomes President of US. Attlee replaces Churchill.
Causes, Practices and Effects of War: WW1
WWI was a Total War: It involved Social, Economical Military and Political (SEMP) involvement Social: Soldiers and civilians were involved. Women also become involved. Economical: Normal economy reconstructed to a war economy; focus of industry changes from consumer goods to war goods. Military: Conscription; Vast scale and intensity of war; Massive destruction; Aims to destroy other opponents Political: Centralized power, use of propaganda to encourage and promote involvement in the war.
1914: West: The Schlieffen Plan was held up by unexpected and strong Belgian resistance. It took over two weeks for the Germans to capture Brussels. This allowed the British to interfere by leaving Channel ports free, enabling the British Expeditionary Force to land. The Germans made straight for Paris instead of approaching Paris from the West. The French backed into Bordeaux and the German impetus increasingly slowed down as it headed for Paris. There was trouble in keeping the army supplied and troops were exhausted. In September the Battle of Marne was launched by the French under Joffre against the Germans. The Germans were therefore driven back into the River Aisne. The Battle of Marne ruined the Schlieffen plan, ensured that Germans would have to face war on two fronts, terminated the war of movement (trench lines spread from the Alps to the Channel coast) and the British navy had time to bring its crippling blockade to bear on Germany's ports. East: The Russians mobilized more quickly than Germans could have expected but made the mistake of attacking both Austria and Germany simultaneously. They were successful against Austria and occupied the Galician province, but the Germans used the previously retired Hindenburg to their advantage and defeated the Russians, once at Tannenburg in August and a second time at the Masurian Lakes a month later, in September. The Russians lost a huge amount of equipment through these battles and although they had a huge army of over 6 million men, they lacked in an amount of rifles. The German self-confidence was boosted from these successes. When Turkey entered the war this further threatened Russia since Turkey had the ability to cut off Russias main supply route through the Dardanelles. A success for the Allies in 1914 was the Serbs driving out an Austrian invasion.
1915: West: A stalemate continued in the west and there was not much development in the trench line due to various reasons. There was barbed wire which prevented attacks by slowing them down Reconnaissance aircrafts and observation balloons could follow action on the "no man's land" Trenches were difficult to capture because the continuous shooting from trenches made attacks suicidal Advance into the trench was difficult because the ground was churned up by artillery barrage Any ground was difficult to defend due to "salients" - bulges in the trench lines which were vulnerable to attack. At Ypres Germans attempted to attack the French by poison gas but miscalculated the attack and when the direction of wind changed, the German's themselves were poisoned. East: Russia had successes against Austria but continuous defeats with Germans, who captured Warsaw and the entirety of Poland. The Turkish blockade of the Dardanelles started having its effect on Russia. Gallipoli Campaign - partly to open up the vital supply line through the Black Sea. Winston Churchill supported the Gallipoli campaign in order to eliminate the Turks. The Campaign was a failure, since the Anglo-French naval attack failed when the ships ran into mines. After this no advance could be made. In December the entire force had to be withdrawn. The failure was a blow to the morale of the Allies. It was the last chance of helping Russia via the Black Sea.
+ in May Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary Italy wanted to seize some Italian speaking provinces of Austria. In London a secret treaty was signed where the Allies promised provinces to italy. The Allies hoped that by keeping thousands of Austrians troops occupied Italians would be able to relieve the concentration on Russia. Italians did not get far with their goals and Russia headed for inevitable defeat.
1916 West: Two important battles: Verdun and The Somme Verdun: Germans launched a massive attack against the town of Verdun and hoped to draw all the best French troops to its defene, destroy them, and carry out a final offensive to win the war. This failed and the Germans had to abandon the attack. There were many casualties on both sides. The Somme: Series of attacks mainly by the British starting from July 1st to November. The aim was to relieve the pressure of the French in Verdun and take over more of the trench line, keeping German forces fully committed. The Allies only made limited advances but were able to lessen German morale. The Germans realized that Britain was capable of being a threat and was a military power. There were severe losses for all countries involved. Haig, the British Commander In-Chief received serious criticism and the Somme contributed to the fall of the British Prime Minister.
David Lloyd George becomes Prime Minister: He improved the situation of the Allies through dynamic and decisive methods. He also encouraged the devleopment of new weapons. He set up a small war cabinet for quick decision-making. East: The Russians attacked Austrians in June to divert German attention away from Verdun. Austrians were demoralized but Germans were also left exhausteed. Romanians invaded Austria but Germans terminated this invasion and occupied entire Romania. 1917 West: The Battle of Cambrai - demonstrated that if tanks were used properly they might break the stalemate of the trench warfare. Cambrai became the model of successful allied attacks of 1918. Italians retreated after defeat by Germans and Austrians at Caporetto. East: Russia withdrew from the war. Two revolutions happened in Russia and the Bolsheviks rose to power. In 1918 the entire German focus could have been directed at the West had the USA not stepped into the picture
USA: In april the USA entered the war partly due to a U-boat campaign of the Germans which they opposed as well as the German attempt to persuade Mexico to declare war on USA. The USA supplied the ALlies with food, merchant ships and credit.
The Central Powers were Defeated:
German spring offensive (1918) Launched by Lundendorff as a last desparate attempt. The Germans broke through on the Somme and were close to Paris. French Marshal Foch helped defeat Germans
An Allied Counter-offensive begins on 8th August Near Amiens - forced Germans to withdraw their trench line. Germany was convinced it would be defeated by spring 1919. An armistice was signed on November 11th.
The Central Powers lost the war because:
The Schlieffen Plan failed -> war on two fronts
Allied sea power was decisive
German submarine campaign failed
USA brought vast resources to the allies
Lloyd George and Clemenceau were more competent than Central Power leaders
Continuous strain of heavy losses demoralized Germans
Germany was badly let down by allies (Italy)
World War 1: Causes, Practices and Effects of War.
General causes for the First World War: MANIA
Militarism: Secret alliances led to an armaments race among the powers. There was a rise in the army and naval estimates. All contintental European powers had adopted a conscription system, except for Britain. Deteriorating diplomatic relationships accelerated the military expansion. All powers increased stocks of arms, produced more modern weapons and increased railway routes. The most concerning militaristic rivalry was the naval race between Germany and Britain. Britains production of her first dreadnought set a new standard for the naval race. Germany had built nine whereas Britain had 18. In 1913 Germany widened the Kiel canal for better routes for the dreadnoughts For years the powers had experienced clashing interests and these were usually resolved by diplomatic means. Now tensions were being dealt with militarily. Therefore the powers began rapidly building up their arsenals. The three Entente powers were involved in secret military talks. British and French made a naval agreeement to concentrate their vessels in the Mediterranean and North Sea. Germany and Austria also had military agreements. These agreements bound all powers to be included in the war, should one break out.
All European powers were prepared for a war by 1914.
Alliances: Triple Entente: GB, France, Russia (not bound militarily, saw Germany as a common enemy and settled Colonial disputs) Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (bound militarily) Alliance systems escalated the July crisis to a European war.
Germany's blank-cheque to Austria-Hungary = gave AH confidence to invade Serbia -> Germany must join war
Russia joins to assist Serbia
France and UK go to war in honor of the triple Entente
Alliances promoted arms races. George Kennan: Once the 1894 alliance had been signed between France and Russia, the fate of Europe was sealed.
However, Alliances were not entirely binding. The alliances had their own inner disputes e.g. Triple Entente and colonial disputes over Persia between UK and Russia. AJP Taylor considered the triple entente to be "in the process of disintergration".
There were no military obligations in the Triple Entente. Alliances were created for purposes of defense -> in theory should have decreased war from breaking out.
Nationalism: Slav nationalism in Austria-Hungary caused tensions within the nation. A-H annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina and after this success Germany and A-H had the confidence to demand formal acknowledgements of Habsburg authority. Both gave their acknowledgements but Russia suffered humiliation from this. Imanuel Geiss: "the Bosnian crisis was a kind of dress rehersal for the First World War".
German nationalism: "A Place in the Sun" The German desire for colonial expansion resulted in the two Moroccan crises.
Fritz Fischer argues that the German ruling elite is to blame for the WW1. He also claims that the ruling elite in Germany had extreme expansionist aims, which a war would allow them to fulfill. Imperialism: German desire for colonial expansion: Moroccan crises. (1905 and 1911) The Bosnian Crisis (1908) The first Balkan War (1912) The second Balkan War (1913)
Awful governments: This reached its peak during the July Crisis. July Crisis explained by ARSE A: Austria declares war 28th July R: Russia mobilizes 31st July S: Schlieffen Plan 1st & 3rd August E: England declares war 4th August
L.C.F. Turner: Maybe Germans did not deliberately provoke war, it was caused by a “tragedy of miscalculations”. Most leading rulers and politicians seemed to be incompetent and made bad mistakes.
Events Leading to the First World War
The First Moroccan Crisis (1905-1906) Germans were testing the recently signed Entente Cordiale between the UK and France. The Cordiale implied that the French would recognize the Brit's position in Egypt in return for acceptance of French takeover in Morocco. Germans on the other hand announced assistance to the Sultan of Morocco in helping to protect the country's independence. They demanded an international conference to be held about the matter which was carried out in Algerciras in January 1906. Brits believed that the Germans were motivated by a desire to dominate diplomatically. Germans did not take the Entente Cordiale seriously due to the history of tension betweeen France and Britain. The conference resulted with support from Italy, Britain, Russia and Spain for French takeover in Morocco. This was a severe diplomatic defeat for Germany.
The British Agreement with Russia (1907) Germans saw this as an act of hostility, although it seemed logical since Russia had previously signed an agreement with France (who was Britain's new ally).
The Bosnian Crisis (1908) Heightened tensions. Austrians took advantage over a revolution occuring in Turkey and annexed the Turkish province of Bosnia. This insulted te neighboring state Serbia, since the Serbs were planning to annex Bosnia themselves. Serbs appealed for help from the Russians, who called for a European conference. Germany provided support for Austria-Hungary, which led to French drawback out of unwillingness to be part of a seemingly possible Balkan war. Brits only protested to Austria-Hungary. Serbian and Austro-Hungarian tensions increased as a result Russians embarked on a massive military build-up to avoid future humiliations.
Agadir Crisis /Second Moroccan Crisis (1911) Further developed situation in Morocco. French troops occupied Agadir in rebellion against the Sultan. Germans sent a gunboat, hoping to put pressure on France. This made the Brits anxious, since they suspected Germany may use Agadir to threaten Britain's trading routes. Germans agreed to recognize French protectorate over Morocco in return for two strips of land in Congo. This was a defeat for Germany and a success for the Entente powers.
The First Balkan War (1912) Began when Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria (the Balkan league) attacked Turkey and captured most of her remaining land in Europe. Sir Edward Grey arranged a peace conference in response to this dispute resulting with the division of former Turkish land between the Balkan states. The Serbs were left unhappy, because they wanted control over Albania. Austria-Hungary responded to this by stating that Albania should become independent.
The Second Balkan War (1913) Bulgaria was unhappy with the settlement (they wanted Macedonia, most of which was given to Serbia) of the first Balkan war and attempted to clear Macedonia of Serbian and Greek forces, which in June 1913 led to the Second Balkan war. Bulgaria's plan misfired when Greece, Romania and Turkey supported Serbia. Brits and Germans tried to restrain a war from breaking out by convincing Austria-Hungary to not attack Serbia. Austia-Hungaryy was aware of the Serb ambition to stir trouble through the Serbs and Croats residing in the double monarchy of A-H. Meanwhile the German's took Sir Grey's willingness to cooperate as a sign that they were not tied to their agreement between France and Russia.
The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (July 28th 1914) Took place in Sarajevo, when Archduke Ferdinand was visiting Serbia with his cousin and wife. He and his wife were assassinated by a terrorist group known as the Black Hand, mainly led by Gavrilo Princip. Austrians blamed the Serb government and issued a nearly impossible ultimatum to agree to. On 28th July Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia since they did not fully agree to the ultimatum. Russians ordered a general mobilization of forces, which the Germans demanded would be terminated. Russians failed to comply and Germans entered the war by declaring war on on Russia on August 1st and on France August 3rd. German troops entered Belgium on their way to France, known as the Schlieffen Plan, which the Brits demanded termination of. Germans ignored this and so Britain entered the war on August fourth. Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia on the 6th of August.
So, what really caused the war? And who was to blame?
Human Health and Physiology: The Nervous System
The nervous system consists of neuroThe Central Nervous System, or the CNS, consists of the spinal cord and brain. Information from all over the body is received by the CNS, which is then processed and interpreted before a suitable response is transmitted. The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves located all throughout the body. Peripheral nerves inculde sensory neurons, which carry information to the CNS, and motor neurons, which transmit impulses from the CNS to muscles and glands that then form a response. There are three types of neuron found in the nervous system
motor neurons: information transmitters, to and from the CNS
relay neurons: within the CNS, form connections to sensory and motor neurons
sensory neurons: transmit information to and from the CNS
Structure of a motor neuron:
Dendrites receive information from relay neurons and transmit impulses to the cell body. One long axon carries impulses away. The cell body contains the nucleus and most of the cytoplasm. The axon is covered by a Myelin sheat formed of Schwann cells. Myelin is an electrical insulation layer and speeds the transmission of impulses along the axon. Junctions where two Schwann cells meet are nodes of Ranvier.
Neurons transmit information in the form of impulses. The impulses are short changes in the electrical potential across the neuron membrane. All neurons contain sodium and potassium ions and impulses occur as these ions move in and out through the plasma membrane. Sodium ions are constantly pmped out whereas potassium ions are constantly pumped in at the resting potential. The neron is negatively charged inside becuase of the presence of Chloride and other negative ions.
For most neurons the resting potential, that is the state when a neuron is not generating an impulse, is at -70mV. The inside of the axon is negatively charged with respect to the outside. When the nerve impulse occurs, the charge must be reversed. The membrane is said to be depolarized for a millisecond. As the charge is reversed in one area of the axon, local currents depolarise the next region so that the impuse spreads along the axon. This impulse is known as the action potential. Sodium ions diffuse via ion channels, reversing the potential from the resting state to an action potential. The impulse travels along te neuron.
Upon stimulation, the gated sodium channels in the neuron membrane open and sodium ions are let in. They follow the electrical and concentration gradient, known as the electrochemical gradient, to move into the cell. The neuron is now depolarised.
The inside of the axon becomes positively charged as the sodium enters. At this point sodium channels close.
Gated potassium channels and potassium ions begin to leave the axon, moving down their electrochemical gradient to re-establish the resting potential. This is repolarisation.
The movement of potassium ions causes the potential difference to fall below the resting potential for a brief period of time. Both sodium and potassium channels close. The resting potential is returned to wen sodium-potassium pumps move ions back to restore the initial state.
When one part of an axon is in an action potential, the adjacent section becomes depolarised. Local currents set between adjacent regions cause ion channels to open and allow sodium ions in and potassium ions out of the cell. The action potential travels along the neuron like a wave. The impulse only passes in one direction (the region behind it is still in the recovery phase or refractory period, when the membrane potential falls below the resting potential).
The synapse is where two neurons meet. It is a tiny gap of around 20nm between the neurons, also known as the synaptic cleft. Action potentials are transmitted across this gap for the impulse to pass along, achieved through the presence of neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters are held in vesicles in the pre-synaptic cell until an action potential hits the membrane and releases the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. In the synaptic cleft the neurotransmitters can bind to the next neuron to cause an action potential.
Human Health and Physiology, SL: Ventilation system
Inhalation:
The external intercostal muscles contract. The diaphragm contracts The volume increases The pressure inside the lungs is low, the pressure in the atmosphere is high. Therefore air moves into the lungs.
Gentle exhalation:
The external intercostal muscles relax The diaphragm relaxes The volume in the thorax decreases The pressure in the lungs is high and the pressure outside the lungs is low, so air moves out of the lungs
Forced exhalation Intercostal muscles contract to lower the ribs Muscles in the abdominal wall contract and push the relaxed diaphragm upward Pressure in the cavity increases Air is forced out of the lungs
Human Health and Physiology SL: Structure of the Villus (Mr.Slim)
Microvilli Greatly increase surface area of villus and allow for a greater rate of absorption
Rich capillary networks Help maintain a concentration gradient for absorption by rapidly transporting absorbed products away
Single epithelial cell layer The thin layer ensures a minimal diffusion distance between the intestinal lumen and capillary network
Lacteals Absorb lipids (fatty acids and glycerol) into the lymphatic system and are later reabsorbed back into the circulation
Intestinal crypts The intestinal crypts (crypts of Lieberkuhn) are located between villi and release juices that act as carrier fluids for nutrients.
Membrane proteins/mitochondria High amounts of these are present to enable active transort into cells. After this contents passively diffuse into the bloodstream.