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Air Pollution & Ozone Depletion

Habitat loss, global climate change, water and air pollution, ozone depletion, species invasions, loss of biodiversity, and the accumulation of toxic wastes are among the many environmental dilemmas our society faces. These complex problems pit environmental limits against economic development, diverse cultures, ethics, values, and social stability and therefore require an understanding of science, policy, society, history, and economics. Environmental scientists must use integrated and holistic approaches to understand and find sustainable solutions to these problems.

The atmosphere has an abundance of oxygen which is essential to all earth's living things. It is also made of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and argon. Ozone is formed through a series of photochemical reactions. In the stratosphere, when a molecule of O2 is bombarded by ultraviolet rays, it splits into two free oxygen atoms. Each of these free atoms can then react with another oxygen molecule to form a molecule of ozone (O3). Ozone is sometimes broken up simply by colliding with a free oxygen atom to form two oxygen molecules. Ozone can also react with a variety of oxygen compounds and be transformed back into oxygen. Before humans began polluting the atmosphere, a delicate cycle consists of a well-balanced amount of ozone and oxygen in the atmosphere. Under certain circumstances, three oxygen atoms bond together to form a colorless gas known as ozone (O3) and too much carbon dioxide in the ozone can have harmful effects. Air pollution is a major factor in causing humans to get ill. Tuberculosis, bronchitis, heart and chest diseases, stomach disorders, asthma and cancers can all be traced to chemicals in the air. Pesticides and fertilizers release gases and particles into the air which poison people and kill animals.

For years, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were used as a cooling device in freezers and air conditioners. Scientists discovered, however, that CFCs destroy the ozone layer – the layer that filters ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Ultraviolet radiation causes eye damage and skin cancer and with little stratosphere to shield humans from these effects we are made vulnerable. An international agreement commonly called the Montreal Protocol, signed in 1989, has helped stop the production of CFCs. If we keep to this agreement, ozone-depleting substances will stop being produced and the ozone layer will begin to repair itself over the next 100 years.

Air pollution is a severe problem, costing China billions of dollars each year in lost productivity and health expenses. The most basic solution for air pollution is to end its root causes: quit coal and move away from fossil fuels, replacing them with clean, renewable energy.

In the short-term, there are many intermediate solutions for air pollution. However, all of these solutions require governments to recognize the impact of air pollution on public health and the economy, and take action immediately. They should make complete air quality information easily available to the public, somewhat like a forest fire cautionary guide. They should also tighten the controls for power plant emissions to reduce emissions and hire people to monitor emissions. They could also restrict the construction of power plants and other energy-intensive industries near residential areas, in an industry initiative .The government needs to introducing cleaner fuel standards and encourage the public to switch to electric vehicles and improve urban planning to increase green spaces.With a booming economy and ever-increasing demand for energy, China has built new coal-fired power plants at an astonishing rate. Today, coal provides not only 80% of China's electricity, but also the lion's share of its air pollutants, from soot to sulphur dioxide. While cars and trucks also contribute to air pollution in cities, it will be impossible to improve air quality in China without moving away from coal.

Coal burning is the biggest contributor of air pollution in Beijing and surrounding area, according to a University of Leeds study sponsored by Greenpeace East Asia. Previous studies have linked outdoor air pollution to premature deaths and child asthma in the industry-intensive region which arguably has the worst air quality in China. China simply cannot afford to allow air pollution to continue taking such a heavy toll. The country's rapid growth in coal consumption has been brought on by extensive industrial expansion, which in turn, has increased pressure on the environment and public health conditions. In order to turn around the deteriorating air conditions, China must fundamentally change its development model, starting with a significant reduction in coal consumption.Take air quality into consideration when conducting environmental assessments for major projects; for example, flyovers and highways should be far away from residential areas.

Other than human actions and the coal industry, air pollution is also caused by natural events. Biological decay and volcanoes release natural sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides, affecting air quality in negative ways. Most of the ozone around the ground level is formed when chemical reactions occur in the sunlight but there's also about 10 to 15 percent transported from the stratosphere. Other natural causes of air pollution are natural sources of particulate matters like volcanoes and dust storms, volatile organic compounds, pollen, forest fires, oceans, and forest fires.

Ozone depletion has been measured only for a few decades, so these researchers caution that they are not entirely certain that rapid warming at the surface is not caused by natural variations in climate, which is powerfully influenced by the interactions of oceans and atmosphere. "However," they conclude, "It seems quite likely that they are at least in part human-induced." (Hartmann,1416) Hartmann and associates also raise the possibility that the poleward shift in westerly winds may be accelerating melting of the arctic ice cap, part of what they contend may be a "transition of the Arctic Ocean to an ice-free state during the twenty-first century." (Hartmann, 1416). A continued northward shift in these winds also could portend additional warming over the land masses of North America and Eurasia, they write. (Hartmann1416). The connection between global warming, a cooling stratosphere, and depletion of stratospheric ozone was confirmed in April, 2000, with release of a lengthy report by more than 300 NASA researchers as well as several European, Japanese, and Canadian scientists. The report found that while ozone depletion may have stabilized over the Antarctic, ozone levels north of the Arctic circle were still falling, in large part because the stratosphere has cooled as the troposphere has warmed. The ozone level over the some parts of the Arctic was 60 per cent lower during the winter of 2000 than during the winter of 1999, measured year over year. The ozone has been built around the earth to sustain life for several centuries, but the more we destroy it the shorter our time on earth will last.

In what ways is the US dealing with air pollution?

Is there a system of capitalism that could lessen the demand for coal?

How is the economy affected by ozone depletion?

The Unending Energy Debate

Energy is an important aspect of every living organism. Organisms need to obtain energy from food to carry out their daily work. According to law of thermodynamics, energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be transformed from one form to another (373). This is law of energy conservation. Energy that we use each day remains a part of our system and manifests in different forms. Renewable energy like sunlight has a process where it is able to reach each level of the food chain. It is also able to produce electricity, which can heat buildings and water. Unlike renewable energy, nonrenewable energy, such as coal, gas, and oil, will become heavily depleted overtime. They can not be recycled through the life system.

Renewable sources of energy are obtained from different natural sources. The most common sources are sunlight, wind, tides, and geothermal energy. Statistics have indicated that renewable sources of energy comprise approximate 16% of total global energy that is consumed on daily basis. The most prominent advantage of this form of energy is that it can be replaced and used continuously without becoming depleted. Renewable sources of energy are mostly used in three different areas which include electricity generation, heating by use of solar hot water and motor fuels through the use of renewable bio-fuels. Renewable sources of energy are renewable and easily regenerated. This is unlike fossil fuels which are perishable once used.

In contrast, burning fossil fuels generates greenhouse gases and relying on them for energy generation is unsustainable. Coal, crude oil, and natural gas are all considered fossil fuels because they were formed from the buried remains of plants and animals that lived millions of years ago. Coal is plentiful and has a high net energy yield, which means it is profitable. The down side to coal is the emissions it produces when burned. It is a contributing factor to greenhouse gases because of the clouds of smoke that are created from burning coal. Coal ash has also become and environmental problem, “the EPA determined that toxic metals and other harmful chemicals in coal ash waste ponds have contaminated groundwater”(384). In addition to the water crisis we are currently going through, we can not have our groundwater poisoned by energy resources. The environmental impact outweighs the energy production as we look toward a more sustainable future. Uranium ore, a solid, is mined and converted to a fuel used at nuclear power plants. Uranium is not a fossil fuel, but it is classified as a nonrenewable fuel. This section discusses the Chernobyl disaster that affected a community in Russia. It is classified as the world's most serious nuclear power plant accident (389). The production of nuclear energy creates long-lived radioactive waste, but there is a small environmental disruption because it doesn't require surface mining. In comparison, to oil is doesn't produce that much daily usable energy.

America “depends heavily on oil” and it has become the fuel the world's economies (374). We are able to indulge in our modern lifestyles because of the growing oil industry. There are 13 countries in control of a majority of the world's crude oil reserves; this “includes Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela” (375). None of the big proven oil reserves exist in America and we are one of the nation's with the most oil usage. We are building a debt to these countries and supplying their economy when we need to be supplying our own economy. Hence the need to find more renewable, sustainable ways of generating energy. Renewable or infinite energy resources are sources of power that quickly replenish themselves and can be used again and again. Examples used in this chapter of renewable energy sources are, solar energy, wind power, hydropower, and biomass plantations. Supposedly, there is an astounding potential for wind power because the mid west has a wind corridor. This will be the next major step for this technology and will result in a dramatic increase in decentralized electricity generation. Offshore wind, near the great lakes, pacific, and northeastern shore, also has the potential to deliver substantial quantities of energy at a price that is cheaper than most of the other renewable energies, as wind speeds are generally higher offshore than on land. If we heavily invest in renewable energy within our nation then we will be self-sufficient enough to decrease our dependance on foreign oil.

Fossil fuels make up a large portion of today’s energy market, although promising new renewable technologies are emerging. Careers in both the renewable and nonrenewable energy industries are growing; however, there are differences between the two sectors. They each have benefits and challenges, and relate to unique technologies that play a role in our current energy system. For a range of reasons, from the limited amount of fossil fuels available to their effects on the environment, there is increased interest in using renewable forms of energy and developing technologies to increase their efficiency. This growing industry calls for a new workforce. The case for utilizing non-renewable energy sources is highly favored to some and disfavored by environmentalists who plead for the need of renewable energy sources such as solar power and wind power. This is why I am studying environmental studies. People need to be knowledgable in this field in order to fight for the rights of the environment and sustainability.

How will profits of renewable energy sources be regulated?

Does the environmental effect of hydropower outweigh energy production?

Are the birds safe from wind power?

Infrastructure is needed to ensure the availability of water resources.

#john oliver #freshwater #sustainability #environmental change

Freshwater Resources for All

One of the world's major environmental problems is the growing shortage of freshwater. There is little access to drinking water in some countries, pollution of the shrinking resource in others, and a decreasing supply in general. Most of the fresh water that is available to us lies within groundwater. There is a space below the soil and rock called “the zone of saturation”(319) where the water table is located. The water table rises and falls with weather patterns. In addition to groundwater we capture usable water from surface runoff which accounts for 34 percent of reliable runoff water usage (320). The Agricultural and Manufacturing industries are largely responsible for water usage and the subsequent pollution. Much of the runoff from livestock and factories adds nitrates to the rivers and lakes in close distance.

Water shortages will continue to grow and it is projected that conflict will arise over access to clean water. I think people without immediate access to freshwater have made it a part of their daily routine to collect water from other sources and bring it back to their villages. This is definitely the case for some places in India and Africa where girl children are taught to gather water for their families to use throughout the day. This prevents them from going to school and getting adequate education because their duties at home come first. This transportation method and process of familial hierarchy has become understood as normative in varying countries. It does not seem fair to me that these young girls have to take on this responsibility because they should be able to go to school and enjoy their childhood. Some girls have to walk at least four miles to get water for their family. There are deep rooted issues connected to the unfair spread of the basic human right of clean water. Some governments are not providing much stability for their people to grow and develop on their land. There are indigenous people within South America who are being told they can not use the well within their neighborhood because the corporations who have shares of the countries want the native people to buy into a corporate, privatized version of water access. This raises the price of water to a point where it is unaffordable for most people in the society. Is this acceptable? With modernization comes sacrifice. Humans had to disrupt land, habitats, and the migration of fish in order to build dams and to secure access to fresh water. I think we need a solution other than infrastructure because we are in a new era. We don't take care of the millions of dams we currently have in America.

One result of underfunding water infrastructure is massive water main breaks. According to a 2012 report by The American Water Works Association, restoring, replacing and expanding our existing water systems to accommodate a growing population will cost at least $1 trillion over the next 25 years, if we expect to use freshwater resources and maintain current levels of service. Although the majority of American homes are hooked up to public sewer systems, about one-third rely on septic systems — underground tanks that receive a household’s wastewater, digest it and release treated water into an underground leach field. Septic systems require regular maintenance to ensure that they are not leaching untreated waste.

Likewise, underfunded wastewater infrastructure leads to between 23,000 and 75,000 sewage leaks each year, allowing, on average, 1.26 trillion gallons of untreated sewage to leak into our waterways at a clean-up cost of over $50 billion. According to the EPA, 40 percent of all waterways in the US do not meet national water quality standards, due in large part, to leaking sewer systems. A national survey also found that over half of US rivers and streams are in a state of poor biological condition which harms the viability of those waterways to sustain healthy populations of aquatic insects and other aquatic life. The current practice of using water more sustainability seems to be the only option because it has the longest lasting affects. Each person has a “water footprint” that determines how much water one uses and how they can begin to use water more resourcefully. We must think globally and act locally.

The water in any places is not only disappearing, it is becoming polluted. We need to recognize all point source pollutants and hold them accountable for their involvement in worsening the aquatic habitats we cherish. The oil industry has greatly affected the coastal water and its levels of pollution. Pollution of the ocean, for many people is a hard concept to grasp because it is such a large mass of water. How can our individual human activities impact it in a harmful way? Well, the combination of 7 billion people can be disastrous because numbers matter. There are several factors such as cities, urban sprawl, farms, toxic sediments, and red tides which all flow into the shore and eventually come together in the ocean. They kill micro organisms, fish, and bottom feeders. This is the life support system we all need to maintain a healthy oceanic environment and it is being destroyed by our actions.

Freshwater is a life force for all living things. Humans are made of mostly water and need it to survive. Therefore, all humans should have equal access to freshwater. In order to make this a possibility governments must work within their publics to ensure communities have these resources. They need to pass laws and regulations that reduce and prevent water polution. Water pollution is a cause of the Cholera disease which can be deadly. It is contracted by feces infested waters and is most susceptible to children. People in less developed countries must use the water they bathe in sometimes because of the lack of freshwater resources. California recently passed a regulation on water usage because they are in a decade long drought. There has been little rain in ten years and the water table has fallen drastically because of it. People are beginning to worry and that has pushed government to get involved.

The quality of our water is directly linked to the quality of our lives. By supporting clean water initiatives and similar measures that improve our water and wastewater treatment systems, we can each have a hand in ensuring clean, safe water for ourselves, our families and our communities.

Which of the three ways do you find best for purifying drinking water?

What are several ways we can change our habits of water usage?

Hazards and Assessments

There is a statistical probability to risks associated with the health hazards humans face each day. Compared to its possibility, which is a general saying that an event could happen without the estimate of likeliness. As humans undergo these environmental hazard which affect their health, scientists are behind the scenes assessing the risks of products and managing the levels of seriousness. This takes analytical skills and risk reduction strategies in order to gather the most useful information. So far scientists have concluded that “we can each suffer from five major types of hazards: Biological, Chemical, Natural, Cultural, and Lifestyle choices”(438). Infectious diseases both transmissible and non-transmissible are major health threats today. Most times they will spread through air, water, food, and body fluids. We hear of epidemics and pandemics (434), which just reference the scale of the spread of infectious diseases. Ebola is currently a devastating epidemic in Western Africa. The media sensationalized its presence in America, but the leading cause of death is actually heart attack (438).

Across the globe diseases such as HIV, Malaria, and West Nile are impacting communities. They easily spread through both, animal and human contact, and human and human contact. According to the World Health Organization the fight against incidents of infectious diseases is progressing as the death rate continues to drop. There has been increased research, education, improved drinking water quality, and proper attention given to less developed countries.

Chemical Hazards are more prevalent in developed countries as all the machinery begins to pollute the city's air with toxins. Two very dangerous chemical hazards are carcinogens and mutagens. Carcinogens are cancer causing chemicals that promote the growth of tumors. According to WHO, the leading cause of death will soon be cancer, taking over the current record holder of heart attacks. An example of a carcinogen is trans fat. Trans fat has been taking out of many foods because of the health risks associated with the intake of carcinogens. In comparison, mutagens are forms of radiation that change DNA molecules. There were investigations held to solve the mutagen problem in Kyoto, Japan. Many sites were found to have mutagens, such as mercury, in the surface soil, “soil contamination with mutagens were severe and continual”(NIH, National Library of Medicine). The chemicals were polluting residential areas and affecting the health of citizens negatively.

In addition to assessing the risks of certain hazards, scientists monitor the toxicity of substances. Toxicology is the study of the harmful effects of chemicals on humans and other organisms. Usually they test mice or rats in the laboratory because the show similar responses to chemicals as humans. Scientists use these rodents to gain a better idea of the outcome of experiments in real life examples. The research gathered from this practice has been helpful in the medicine field, but for other reasons it has been a part of the controversial topic of animal testing. As scientists evaluate the harmfulness of chemical hazards they must discover how much is sustainable within the body until it becomes poison. They are constantly try to find the carrying capacity of the human body for different chemicals. Smoking cigareetes is a major risk one takes to exposing themselves to harmful chemicals. As people evaluate their risks they must ask how risky it is compared to other risks, instead of how lethal it is.

I think the most important part about avoiding health hazards is surrounding lifestyle choices. Each day we make decisions that affect our well-being. All risks can not bee assessed at once, but they are helpful to use when comparing two options we may have when choosing to expose ourselves to health hazards. I eat consciously to maintain control of my weight and health. I don't drink soda and I eat green vegetables every day. Soda, with its high sugar content, is full of carcinogens and is proven to be linked with diabetes. Green vegetables are good for digestive health and keep your colon clear of tumors or unwanted growths. These are two lifestyles choices that I take to simply improve my health.

Do the harmful affects to animals outweigh the positive conclusive research found by animal testing?

The Importance of Diverse Environments

According to our “Living in the Environment” textbook, aquatic habitats are in danger from human activity and invasive species. Humans know very little about the earth's interconnected oceans, which has made it hard to understand the problems they have cause in aquatic ecosystems. So far humans have only explored about five percent of the world's waters and have properly studied only one percent of the life forms in the sea (Miller 251). Some conservatives claim, these are small percentages to use in order to make claims about the affects of pollution and other human activity. The growth of the human population, which can be properly assessed definitely affects the environment, but it seems that is not enough information to properly support the argument that all aquatic habitats are endangered.

Humans exploit the earth's waters in many ways; they pollute, overuse, and disturb ecosystems, but if there's so much more to be discovered in the waters how can our oceans really be in danger of collapsing as implied by Miller. I think our oceans are vast enough to sustain the atrocities committed against them. They have existed long before us and will continue to exist after us, but for how long we do not know. The impact we have on the sea is still important and we need to make sure its a positive impact. This begins with educating the public on the significance of fresh water and salt water systems on our planet. There are three general patterns of marine bio diversity by which our oceans are ordered. This pattern is recognized within the first section of the chapter,

“the greatest marine biodiversity occurs in coral reefs, estuaries, and on the deep ocean floor. Biodiversity is also higher near the coasts than in the open sea because of the greater variety of producers and habitats in coastal areas. Then there is the bottom region where biodiversity exists in abundance, but can not be reached”(251).

Studying biodiversity at the surface is easier to access. Many times researchers conduct their studies in coral reefs since it is near the coast and it is home to many species. Near the surface there is also direct sunlight. It is more difficult to study the biodiversity within the deep-sea because the water is pressurized and it is pitch black. Scientists have decided to build underwater robots that will help us gather more information about these habitats. Humans and invasive species are being accused of destroying and degrading aquatic ecosystems. Coastal wetland and mangrove forests have been poorly maintained due to overfishing and trawling within coral reefs. Coral reefs are also being affected by shoreline development, pollution, and ocean acidification from increased levels of carbon dioxide emitted by human activities. These habitats were created for a purpose; wetlands and mangrove forests protect tropical neighborhoods from floods and earthquakes. Any disruption to these ecosystems could off set the balance created by the positive feedback loop system. Not only do these mangrove trees and swamp land provide habitats for various animals, but they also provide protection for the livelihood of the people.

Invasive species are dangerous because they take all the nutrients from native species and eventually kill off the original species. This disrupts the ecosystem services and human economies. If a popular crop is taken over by an invasive species, then people will no longer be able to make money from a part of their agriculture. A recent example of the spread of invasive species, which destroyed an ecosystem is brown seaweed or Wakame. Wakame was brought to the coast of California, unnoticed, probably stuck to the bottom of a trading boat. It graced the ocean floor and grew rapidly. It displaced the native kelp species that provided a habitat for sea otters. Biodiversity is affected by the spread of invasive species because they make it impossible for other species to thrive and live in harmony with newly introduced elements. It takes over through a rapid spread of seeds which aims to monopolize over the environment. Many aquatic habitats and habitats on land have been put at risk by invasive species. Pollution, population growth, climate change, and other disturbances which complete the HIPPCO theory have also put our oceans at risk. HIPPCO is the first step to understanding how we can interact with our oceans safely and sustainably.

It is not all bad news because aquatic biodiversity is being protected and people are working to sustain these habitats. They are creating laws and economic incentives in order to manage the coastal impact made by humans. Ecotourism is a growing business and the combined educational opportunity of ecotourism for aquatic life could be the answer to naivity on the importance of aquatic biodiversity. This could also support local communities through partnerships that garner opportunities for economic development. We need an ecosystem approach to sustaining aquatic life and reversing our affects. This incorporates the ideology of working globally and locally to fuel change in the environment. In my opinion, the three most important priorities are:

Identify and preserve the world's aquatic biodiversity hotspots and areas where deteriorating ecosystem services threaten people and many other forms of life.

Protect and restore the world's lakes and river systems, which are the most threatened ecosystems of all.

Initiate ecological restoration projects worldwide in systems such as coral reefs and inland and coastal wetlands to help preserve the biodiversity and important natural services in those systems.(273)

These priorities are not possible for the average person to complete on their own. Edward Wilson, the scientist who developed this list, is not clear on who these priorities should be placed with but I think he means government. In a democracy the people have a voice in their governmental sphere, when he says “we,” he means “we the people.” The government has the resources to put these priorities in place and we have to voice our concerns. The government should be involved in correcting these problems. We pay taxes toward the various laws we support. I would support our tax dollars going to a campaign that brings attention to these necessities.

Are the priorities set forth by Edward Wilson realistic?

Do we need more information to discover the severity of the threat to biodiversity?

Could Oceanbots be a reliable source?

The greatest threats to biodiversity: Climate Change, People, Habitat Loss

University of Southern Australia

Habitat Degradation

"Coral Reef Fisheries and Habitat Degradation"

#ecosystems #environment #biology

Degradation, Preservation, and Costa Rica

Biodiversity is negatively affected by the destruction of habitats and subsequentextinction of species; humans play a significant role in efforts tosustain biodiversity. In this week's chapter Miller argues, “thegreatest threats to diversity are loss of habitat, harmful invasive species, human population growth, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation” (191). The human activity of deforestation, which degrades the natural habitat of species such as the wolf and deer, is a threat to the survival of various other species. Forests are being cut down to serve economical purposes, but they have great ecological purposes that are constantly overlooked. Forests need to be protected as ecosystems that greatly support biodiversity because they offer ecological services that are not found anywhere else. Forests “support energy flow and chemical cycling, purify water and air, store atmospheric carbon, and provide numerous wildlife habitats” (220).

We have rising extinction rates in many countries of various animals like the Whooping crane, Mexican grey wolf, and California condor because of habitat degredation. These extinction rates exceed the natural background extinction rate by 1000 times more for some species (192). In general terms, this means that half of the world's animal and plant species could vanish by the end of the century (192). This is terrifying to think of because all species are important to the functioning of their ecosystem. The degradation of species in the plant and animal kingdom compared to an exponential growth in the human population illustrates the shifted system we live in, where there is no balance. The resources are over exploited, animals are threatened, and biodiversity is not a priority for the government. As mentioned in the 23rd chapter of Living in the Environment, the environment has no economic value in a neo-classical capitalist economic sense, except for the use of its resources to produce consumer goods. This view needs to be countered with environmentalists view, which are protective of the sustainable use value of diverse habitats. Natural capital has sustainable value to the survival of humans, instead of the social system of economy. Species are important to natural capital because, on the most basic level, they support the natural system which is essentially life-support; they provide natural services. Plants offer food, bees pollinate the plants, trees offer wood and clean air; these things make life possible. The way we must preserve these natural occurances is through reserves and other protected areas. An effective method for combating degraadation is “designing and connecting nature reserves” through “habitat corridors”(240). These would allow species to migrate and have free range over certain protected areas. Several well-placed medium sized reserves could change the way animals and people interact in certain ecosystems. Although, there have been multiple arguments against this theory because a larger amount of reserves connected by corridors would inhibit pest species to move into different areas. This could potentially destroy the natural habitat of isolated populations, but could stimulate biodiversification (241). A case study provided in the textbook, focusing on Costa Rica, was helpful in explaining the steps toward habitat conservation through nature reserves. The country was able to consolidate “eight zoned parks into megareserves,” so that each reserve inculded local and indigenous sustainable land use and biodiversity. About 20 years ago, Costa Rica began focusing on ecological conservation, allowing it to transition from a country with one of the highest deforestation rates to one with the lowest (243).

Not only are the species residing in forests in danger, but the inhabitants of coral reefs are also threatened by humans. Humans may be the causes of the problem, but we also have the potential to create a solution. If we begin to talk about these issues in powerful settings, laws may be enacted and species can be protected. The US endangered species act is a perfect example of this communication effect. If the environment becomes party of the larger conversation, the people will fight for change in the way we treat our resources and ecosystems that provide these resources. I think it was a step in the right direction for environmentalist who advocated the Act in 1973. In addtion, the UN Millenium Ecosystem Assessment helped environmental experts identify key ecosystem services that provide numerous ecological and economic benefits. It also pointed out that humans are degrading 60 percent of the earths natural services in various ecosystems around the word (244). So not only are we exploiting the economic value, in doing so we also exploit the sustainable use value.

From these findings scientists have developed four-approaches to hastening the recovery of ecosystems. Ecosystems have the potential to be saved whether they are restored, rehibilitated, replaced, or created using artifical ecosystems. In a democratic society, it is the citizen's job to voice his/her opinion in the public sphere. Environmental advocates must begin to recover ecosystems using the voluntary work of others and requesting assistance from the government.

Are reserves properly protected by the federal government?

Should National parks be managed by state governments?

#costarica #ecosystem #biodiversity #environmentalstudies

The Octagon

A Green residential complex on Roosevelt Island

http://www.octagonnyc.com

#sustainableliving

Central Park Urban Development and Environment

Urban Development & Sustainability

Urban planning is an important part of establishing a sustainable society, but societies with a capitalistic economic system are not meant to be sustainable. Capitalism thrives on production, consumption, and waste. As the population increases in urban areas, continual public access to resources becomes necessary for the purpose of consumption. Many places across the globe are undergoing urbanization as job opportunities force people to move into cities. The global market has been created to enforce urbanization in certain places like Nigeria, China, and India. This massive migration stems from the movement of capitalist ideologies from the developed world to inspire economic growth in other parts of the world. Capitalism is fueling a global economic market which also promises economic stability.

In less-developed countries the urban population is increasing because of economic support established by a government that rewards those who live in the city and can contribute to the GDP. The growth of people in these areas, puts a stress on the environment in many ways such as, improper waste management, air pollution, and poverty. The amount of waste produced by city-dwellers in less-developed countries increases each day and exceeds several tons. There have been examples of sewage polluting water sources and trash broken down by incinerators contributing to air pollution. These pollutants lower the quality of life and contribute to health problems in many areas (594). Poverty in cities has reached an alarming rate. As more people move to the city with their family, there is less room to sustain the population. Some are forced to live in slums and shantytowns because there is no room for them in the city. They live in extreme poverty as the economy is unable to sustain the massive migration. The large numbers of people that form clusters in these cities also contribute to the high levels of poverty in developing countries because resources become scarce with overcrowding.

Major cities in america are designed to set themselves apart from suburban life. The people who plan to develop the cities cut down the trees and force away all the animals that inhabit the area. Trees are actually a sustainable solution to car pollutants because they absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. Car emissions are the focus for the debate on the greenhouse effect and climate change; cars are a major component to the excess amount of carbon dioxide gas in our atmosphere. When most inhabitants of the city are driving to work each day, the amount of CO2 pollution accumulates.We need oxygen to breath and trees produce the most natural clean air there is, but planning for the city has not included nature. Some highways have even gone so far as to cut down the trees that line them in order to make more lanes for cars. An effective way for decreasing pollution levels would be placing trees next to highways in order to capture the carbon dioxide gases. We create the idea that suburban life, city life, and rural natural life has to be separate. In theory, our urban environments could be altered to include natural and suburban components. In New York City, Central park has been preserved for over 100 years. The natural components of walking trails, lakes, and trees were included in the plans for the city of New York and have stood firmly against urban sprawl.

Urban designers in cities across the globe rely on public transportation to encourage commuters to have a smaller ecological footprint. A comprehensive city development plan that includes walking trails, bike paths, and bus and train systems is essential to the comfort and convenience of living. If trees and other greenery were added to the walking and biking trails the landscape would not only look nice but also offer clean air. The excessive use of cars in an urban setting hinder the sustainability practices that urban living can offer. It uses more land than necessary and pollutes the air with emissions.

I recently had a conversation with Professor Cathcart, who teaches an urban design course at Fordham Unviersity, about sustainable design and urban planning. The term “urban land-use planning” asserts that we must plan to use our land according to the resources it offers and amount of space it offers. In our discussion Dr.Cathcart stated, “any architecture or design should be sustainable, you want it to last for generations.” This should be the first thought in any urban design proposal because there is history that remains in buildings and cities that have stood the test of time. Of course there's the ancient Inca ruins and the infamous Easter Island, which we are fascinated by because they were once major cities. We take interest in abandon towns and parks because it is intriguing to know that people once inhabited such a place, but it is important to preserve our most successful cities. I would agree that we need to plan our urban city centers for years to come, similar to that fact that we want our building to withstand seasonal changes for many years. Sustainable design should be the term for all architectural designs, instead of standing out to make them special. It is also important that we take sustainability values into consideration and make changes to our urban environments. Miller argues that an Ecocity designed “for people, not cars” (607) would be an ideal sustainable solution because they are communities founded on the three principles of sustainability. Solar energy, biodiversity, and chemical cycling are all important to the development of environmentally conscious living. I believe this can be possible if city-dwellers work as a collective to improve their community and its use of resources. This is made most visible in the example of Bogota, Columbia, where the mayor “encouraged citizens to improve their local neighborhood [pollution] and rush-hour traffic decreased by 40%” (607). The citizens of Bogota developed a sense of civic pride which inspired them to be more aware of their ecological footprint. Americans need a leader to endorse sustainable living in urban settings. We must follow the citizens of Bogota when planning new developments.

I propose we mandate a proposal inclusion for all new developments that supports ecocities. Our cities need to be backed by sustainable thought in order to encourage people to develop and grow. There could be areas for community gardens and reliable public transportation.

How does the Smart Growth perspective protect wildlife?

What would you include in your ecocity to make it the most sustainable?

#NYC #sustainable #urbanliving

How do humans affect the environment?

http://greenliving.lovetoknow.com/How_Do_Humans_Affect_the_Environment

Forest Regeneration

"Recent Anthropogenic Changes within the Forest Landscapes of Nova Scotia"

Politics, Law, and Sustainability

Each region of the earth is situated in its own biosphere. The economies of these regions depend on their relation to their environment and what the surrounding environment offers toward their economic capital. An economic system has three major components: natural capital, human capital, and manufactured capital, which all come together to satisfy people's needs and wants. Nature plays a role in the economy because of its abundance of resources in supporting life on earth. This includes agricultural opportunities, water accessibility, and livable temperatures that can improve the lives of human beings who want to settle in an area with these qualities. The economy is boosted by a strong natural foundation.

In addition, the combination of nature and human activity allow the economy to grow because humans are able to skillfully manage resources. Their input heightens the value of natural capital by giving it purpose and creating demand. For example, tree bark and wood have been used for many years and have developed several different uses over the years. If humans did not discover fire we would not have such an extensive timber industry for our wood burning stoves or our fireplaces. This leads into the manufactured capital that is created by the interaction between human capital and natural capital. The manufactured capital is the gain profited from equipment and factories which support the human and natural capital working together. Mass deforestation which is occurring to support the timber wood industry, has to go through many channels to become the paper or pencil we use; it is an example of a result of manufactured capital. Economies everywhere are struggling to manage resources effectively because economic growth is not seen as sustainable. The economy is a money operated system and it is hard to attach a dollar sign to ecosystems. As the economy and environment work to find middle ground in their growth, I think it is best to wonder without either where would we be?

As a cyclical struggle between production and consumption there is no outlet for regeneration; the eternal life of a forest is then measured against the money that could be made if it was cut down. We need value assigned to the products we buy, to the way we budget our lives, to the society as a whole in comparison to other societies. Without an abundance of forests we would have no clean air and without a stable economy, we would have a low-functioning society that trades most things. There would be no innovation or investments in new environmentally sustainable technologies, and no lobbying for environmental policy. We are able to deal in money we do not really have, but there is still substance to our economy. I would argue both trees and economies are irreplaceable and economic growth can be sustainable, if we get rid of this disastrous cycle of degradation and depletion of nonrenewable resources.

The way we view our own economy and compare it to that of others is directly related to the value we put on natural capital. If we ask ourselves about the sustainability process, it is not something our economists should think of as a quick way to boost the economy. The major selling point is long term goal setting and generational accessibility to natural resources. The economy which is supported by human capital, natural capital, and manufactured capital as previously discussed will be longer-lasting if each component is properly maintained. We must control our pollution and resource use by balancing our population and tackling poverty. This could begin with the “shifting from the current material-flow economy to a service-flow economy”(626) that supports sustainability practices. It eventually would reduce the over use of resources and waste mentality. As business owners begin to change their ideology toward available outlets for profit, I think they will find more ways to implement efficiency. Poverty accounts for some of the environmental problems we face today especially with its contributions to resource use, population growth, and environmental degradation. It is much easier to offer job training when working with companies that reuse their products and outsource them to other private and public sectors which need their services. An essential part of eliminating poverty would also be elevating the status of women in impoverished places by granting the opportunity for extended education. This would also affect the women's ability to delay the start of a family by seeking education first. As a domino effect the fast growing population in places like India and China would decline and ecological footprints in those areas would also be reduced. Natural capital across the globe is being consumed at alarming rates, but each region has a different mode of consumption.

It is pertinent that we make a safe transition to sustainable economics in order to find other longterm solutions to our environmental problems, it is somewhat of a gateway for other possibilities. The interaction between the various components of the economic system is similar to that of our societal system. The laws that govern us are endorsed by our political economy of democracy and capitalism, and our social structure. In our society, the government has the power to protect public interests through lawmaking. If the citizens of our country were to show their common interest is the environment and sustainable economic development more policies could be made in our favor. Unfortunately, the corporations with the most money overshadow the interests of the environmental public, so this leads to oil industry market failures and mass agricultural production. As policies toward environmental programs are created a formula must be followed to enact change; recognition of a problem, formulation of a solution, implementation of various solutions, and monitoring or adjustments to experimental solutions. I believe this idealist view of a solution generator seems great as a diagram on paper, but even the Democrats agree that there are no quick solutions. In a Democracy, the people govern themselves through elections and with such complex problems happening in the environment people will develop their own ideas about challenges with opening pandora's box. Today, many of the environmental topics are controversial and people within the government are influenced by outsiders with their own agenda. The most simple principle to live by in this situation would be the humility principle, which is touched on in Chapter 24. It states, “Our understanding of nature and how our actions affect nature is quite limited”(640). We much each recognize our affect on nature and our duty to protect it for ourselves and future generations. We can not protect it with fences and physical boundaries, we must also enact laws and policies that solidify our sentiments.

Is a law the strongest way to get across a message?

In terms of environmental law, does it make more of a statement than an victory from an environmental lawsuit?

#forestconservation #forestry #sustainability

A land ethic changes the role of Homo sapiens from conqueror of the land-community to plain member and citizen of it. It implies respect for his fellow-members, and also respect for the community as such

(1949, p. 204). Leopold

How does a stewardship worldview differ from a citizenship worldview?

Ife Adelona

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