History Splice

Historian/Entertainer/Social Commenter

[maverickniner]

Park life (at Old Post Park!)

[maverickniner]

Sorry for no posts in while...Graduate school.

I will be delivering new content soon hopefully. I have been super busy which I apologize for. I hope to have a new blog up soon and a better one with better content. Thank you for patience! 

[maverickniner]

Slice of History: Indian Independence (The Great War, Gandhi, and Jinnah)

     India, once a state of independent principalities, was united and disunited throughout history; more disunited than united. However, the British takeover in 1757 with the Battle of Plassey changed the face of India indefinite. Instead of the British Government ruling directly, the British East India Company took control ruling the land and trade in India. This era became known as the Raj until 1858 when the British Government took over. Although the British may have united the state of India, it would be the Great War, Jinnah, and Gandhi that would change India and deliver its independence.

     The Great War, or WWI, began on 28 July 1914 and involved all the great powers of the world. However, one fact commonly ignored is that colonies were also as heavily involved and more so than the great powers in some instants. India contributed large sums of money and manpower to the war effort, but much of their contributions were just ignored or downplayed. India contributed over 100 million pounds to Britain during the war lasting from 1914 to 1917. Another addition to the war effort, which needs some explanation, was the deployment of sepoy soldiers. The sepoy soldiers were some of the best soldiers in the British military during the war; many were lead into high-risk zones of the war and showed their bravery to the world. Battalions of sepoys were always put with a British official to lead them; especially in the Great War since the Sepoy Rebellion nearly ousted the British in 1857.  The "British, who had initially recruited Indians only for auxiliary military roles, succeeded within 30 years, against their own initial expectations, in converting them into regular European-style infantry capable of performing complicated tactical evolutions on the battlefield in the western manner." By 1914, the sepoy soldiers were well trained and experienced. Sepoys made one-third of the British forces present in the Great War. However, the Battle of Kut would hurt sepoy's reputation after a strategic retreat. The British viewed it as cowardliness and demoralized their Indian soldiers because of it. The fragility of Britain's hold on India became apparent in field hospitals as well. According to Hyson, "thousands of colonized subjects were located and managed within a metropolitan province…Indian hospitals became sites of concentrated imperial anxiety, with the potential to destabilize British rule in India itself as well as the English localities in which they were created." These sepoy soldiers would later return to India and help aid the Independence Movement stirred up by the war. It is true that much of the movement was kept quiet while the war raged, but some seen it as an advantage. Educated Indians began to realize, similar to the demoralized soldiers, that they should not have to pay all the costs of the war. As a result, it stirred up the resentment of the nationalist; they would effectively use the war to stir up the people. If the war would affect everyone, then more people would resent their British overlords and join the independence movement. Jinnah and Gandhi were such nationalists that seen and used the war to further the Independence movement.  

     Both Jinnah and Gandhi were similar due to both being lawyers, but that is all that is similar between the two. Without the Great War, neither of them would have been able to foster a sufficient movement of people towards Independence. Jinnah had an outstanding mind and a successful legal career in Bombay; he was a master negotiator. Jinnah was also the founder and leader of the Muslim League which was created to ensure representation in a dominate Hindu society. Gandhi, not only a lawyer, was also a brilliant political activist like Jinnah. However, they differed in views. Gandhi returned to India in 1914 as the Great War was just beginning. According to Guha, "Gandhi was influenced, and possibly inspired, by both Gokhale and Tilak. Like them, he owed a close allegiance to the Indian National Congress." Gandhi practiced non-violent protest and stressed the importance of not committing terroristic actions against the British. Jinnah differed believing that violence was necessary. However, how did these two men lead the Independence Movement to achieve something thought previously to be outlandish? The Great War provided the opportunity to these two great men; the friction between the two men's ideas is also part of the reason freedom was finally achieved in 1947. The Great War experienced by the soldiers of India brought back the feeling of demoralization and the yearning of their own nation; many seen the British differently and added to the Independent Movement. Not only did India have a superior fighting force such as the sepoys, but they also realized that they had saved Britain from defeat. Without the sepoys and other contributions from India, one could effectively argue that the British would have lost against the Germans. Indian intellectuals noticed this and realized that with a sufficient force or people they could throw the British out of India. Without the war, these intellectuals may have never of concluded that they had to get people involved with the movement; the whole movement may have been confined to just the intellectuals and thus independence would have never been achieved. Gandhi, Jinnah, and other Indian leaders successfully convinced people to march and to move toward a free India. This movement was characterized by the friction between Gandhi and Jinnah but this friction gave the movement its strength. Gandhi and Jinnah were opposites and each had brilliant plans, but without the threat of violence, Gandhi would not have been taken seriously and the British would have probably shot their way to controlling the mob and movement. However, without Gandhi, there would have been no control over the violence; India's future would have been much different if either Gandhi or Jinnah were out of the picture. When Gandhi's peace methods failed, Jinnah enthralled the people into fighting back. When the people started committing excessive violence and terrorism, Gandhi fasted and brought the mob under control. These tactics effectively brought the British government to its knees. According to Trautmann, "Beginning in the first decade of the twentieth century, The British, increasingly pressed by nationalist action, sought to find formulae that all parties could agree to for sharing power with elected Indian officials." However, the British were too late. India was going to have its independence and be free of British rule. Without the Great War, organizing for independence would have been impossible as stated before. Organization, as a result of the war and Indian leaders, took two different forms in India and served to achieve independence.

     Muslims and Hindus have been in conflict since the 18th century; Britain could have possibly kept its hold on India if these two groups never organized. Gandhi preached that all must join together as Indians, but animosity between Muslims and Hindus still persisted. As a result, Jinnah effectively established the Muslim League whose corporation varied between 1906 and 1947; however, Trautmann and others agree that "the high point of their corporation was the period of World War I." Gandhi, with major help from Jinnah, brought the two sides together and organized them against the British. Organization of people can sometimes count more than numbers of people as India's history proves. Organization with the India National Congress lasted well into World War II when India strategically made its stance against Britain. If WWI taught the Indians that Britain was beatable, WWII gave India the courage to make the stance and finally challenge the Empire. Gandhi would take the lead in the process for independence while doing much of the negotiating with Britain. Finally, on the 15 August 1947, India gained its independence and established an India for Indians. WWI, or the Great War, gave India the foundation for independence while WWII ended British rule of India. Without the Great War, India would have probably never sponsored a movement of the people, Jinnah and Gandhi would have probably never come into the roles that they did, and the movement would have probably of died or been crushed by the British.

     One can argue that Gandhi and Jinnah lead to the freedom of India, but to ignore the events taking place around India would be a mistake. The Great War was a prominent event in Indian history where they contributed much, lost much, and gained the knowledge that Britain was not undefeatable. It effectively gave Gandhi and Jinnah the knowledge and tools to steer India in the direction of independence. Their friction, as discussed above, further contributed to the movement finally culminating in WWII.  If it was not for the war and these brilliant men, India would be lost and its future unknown. 

Bibliography:

Bryant, G.J. "Indigenous Mercenaries in the Service of European Imperialists:          The Case of the Sepoys in the.." War In History 7, no. 1 (January 2000): 2.          Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed April 17, 2013). Guha, Ramachandra. Makers of Modern India. Cambridge, MA: Harvard                  University Press. 2011. Hyson, Samuel, and Alan Lester. "'British India on trial': Brighton Military                    Hospitals and the politics of empire in World War I." Journal Of Historical              Geography 38, no. 1 (January 2012): 18-34. Academic Search Complete,            EBSCOhost (accessed April 17, 2013). Trautmann, R. Thomas. India: Brief History of a Civilization. New York: Oxford          Press. 2011.

[maverickniner]

Slice of History: Humanism in the Renaissance (The love and Renewal of Antiquity)

     Since the Renaissance, the study of humanities, or studia humanitatis, has been held essential to many careers, but more importantly the studia humanitati has had a lasting effect on art in general. Art, literature, and politics have been intertwined with humanism starting in the Renaissance and served as vessels for the movement. As a result, art, literature, and politics reflected ideas and perceptions of the renewal of ancient Italian society in addition to people’s love for antiquity and their perceptions of wealth, status, and rhetorical skills.

     The perception of renewal is evident throughout the Renaissance period and characterizes humanism; although not composing the entirety of humanism, renewal was a major aspect of the humanist movement. Italian society from 1300 through 1500, or the Renaissance period as seen by Italians of the time period, was considered the renewal of the classical world. According to Marsilio Ficino, “So if we are to call any age golden, it must certainly be our age which has produced such a wealth of golden intellects” (Ficino PA). People of the Renaissance viewed wisdom and eloquence as lost since the fall of Rome, but wisdom and eloquence had been revived in their time to make a modern society or the Renaissance period. With the renewal of classic society, art, literature, and politics helped to solidify as well as to show the characteristics of the Renaissance and humanism. 

     Literature and politics reflected humanism in society; to do politics, a man needed a humanistic education due to it being valued by those in power. The elite often chose their successors based on education, studia humanitatis, received. Women could not work in politics due to views of gender roles. Women, however, did compose some of the humanists; they were very constrained due to their gender as well as views of gender. Women who sought to be educated became seen as chaste. As a result, many of these women no longer were accepted by other women and men tended to fear them due to their knowledge. Some women were victimized by other humanist men. However, these women also studied Latin and appreciated the renewal of ancient knowledge. Latin was considered highly important for politics; society emphasis on learning to speak and write Latin. Latin was also the prime language of the humanist during the Renaissance. Latin was considered the language of the past, so the major improvements to the language were seen as renewal and a symbol of the modernity they considered themselves to be in. People, due to the increasing mastery of Latin, viewed the Middle Ages as below them and archaic. People were finally regaining classic culture which they considered to be a more civilized and smart culture. Latin was seen to compose eloquence which was essential to humanists; “previously it [Latin] was unpolished, imprecise and unrefined, but rising step by step it reached its highest pinnacle at the time of Cicero” (Bruni PB). Cicero was the author which every humanist read and copied hoping to achieve Cicero’s expert Latin skills. Cicero characterizes the expectations of many elite citizens for those under the studia humanitatis due to his books composing of most of the teachings. Part of politics also consisted of literature such as documents and letters. All documents and letters were expected to be written in Latin; every politician had to be able to write Latin further emphasizing the importance of the language. Many books that made up the literature of this time period were also ancient Latin texts. Rhetoric skills, as a result of Latin's importance, were viewed as highly important in politics and writing. Latin was a vessel for humanism and humanists communicating their ideas and knowledge. Art also characterized perceptions of revival in the Renaissance.

     Giotto, a famous Renaissance painter, was seen as the bringer of Renaissance art and it as a vessel for humanism. The new emerging style of art was seen as a renewal of classic culture and furthermore a teacher of humanism. Many painters studied under the humanities due to them having to know about ancient culture and biblical history; as a result, humanism was carried throughout many pieces of work. However, art before Giotto was considered uneducated and rough by most standards set by the emerging modernity. Owners of such art before the Renaissance had statues and other works from craftsman unlike the famous artists and geniuses such as  Michelangelo or Leonardo. The new artists would become the symbols of the era and modernity. Society attributed their new view of art to the classical view of art; art was less traditional and fit for urban and laymen purposes effectively delivering humanist messages. Nudes, absent since the fall of Rome, made a comeback in the Renaissance as well. Architecture and sculpture, according to Matteo Palmieri, “had been producing stupid monstrosities, have in our time revived and returned to the light, purified and perfected by many masters” (Palmieri PB). Despite architecture, sculpting and painting took on a huge role in from 1200 to 1500 serving humanism as well as characterizing the Renaissance period.

     Sculpture and painting were practiced throughout the Middle Ages but was seen as unrefined and terrible similar to Latin. According to Vasari, "arts of sculpture and painting continued to be practiced until death of the last twelve Caesars, they failed to maintain their previous excellence" (Vasari PB).  Society, as well as many humanist scholars, put emphasis on the unrefined nature of previous arts and their achievement of restoring these arts to antiquity. As part of the perception of renewal, arts, literature, and politics revived ancient cultures of Rome and Greece by perfecting what was considered degraded and almost lost. However, in addition to Roman and Greece culture, polytheistic cultures, the Renaissance perception of revival was within a Christian lens.  

     Scholars and humanist further studied Ancient Christian texts as well as Roman sources. Petrarch, as well as other scholars, studied St. Augustine. The Renaissance is often characterized as totally secular, but with humanism and Christianity intertwined, the period was not just secular, but very much Christian. The Pope did not have total authority, though, cities were lay and urban. Many of the people and humanists were devout Christians but did not answer to the Pope. For example, Lorenzo Valla was a devout Christian, but challenged the Pope stating, “we do not count possession as given until the old magistrates are removed and the new ones substituted” (Valla, King 83).  Art further shows emphasis on Christian teachings and humanism, many of the art pieces commissioned were from the Church and many were in the traditional roman style. Nudes of David and other such figures from the biblical text were prominent in the Renaissance period showing the religious view of humanist while still being a lay and urban society. Women humanist pose a challenge to the Christian perception of the Renaissance.

     Many of the women, as stated before, were separated from the male humanist and often victimized; although humanist women were not as abundant as males, humanist women still fought against perceptions of them given by the Bible. However, due to them being forced into a corner by male humanist and society’s view of them, many of the women argued against themselves. According to Nogarola, “the woman did not eat from the forbidden tree because she believes she would become more like God, but rather because she was weak and inclined to pleasure” (Nogarola, King 87). Nogarola argues against women, but other women such as Cereta fought against the religious perceptions of women as well as women’s own disdain for themselves. Cereta states, “nor can those women who become dull-witted through laziness and the sludge of low pleasures ascent to the understanding of difficult things” (Cereta, King 87). To understand renewal in the Renaissance, readers involved must understand Christianity through the eyes of those living in the time period and how humanist used it and sometimes fought against it. Women and men were different in their uses of religion due to gender roles being prevalent throughout society. However, the fact that women were viewed as they were by other humanists allows historians to see characteristics of gender perception in the period. As discussed before, women were viewed as subservient to the men; any woman with an education, although admired, was yet ostracized by men, humanist, as well as other women. The perception of renewal is not the only aspect of humanism, the love of antiquity is also very present.

     Love for antiquity can be found in the revival of art, literature, politics, and philosophy as discussed earlier. Many of the sculptures and paintings mimicked the best practices of Ancient Rome and Greece. Donatello's David shows the progression of art beyond the stages of antiquity while also showing respect and love for antiquity. Politics were seen as a revival of Republic Rome, mainly from Cicero’s age of advancement, while literature was composed of many ancient Roman and Christian texts. Scholars, humanist, attribute these activities as a revival of antiquity. While there are obvious social forces driving the creations and decisions of the city, no other credit is given except for the ancient past. As a result, the love for antiquity is very clear and is an essential characteristic of humanists. The love for antiquity shows that society during the Renaissance was almost obsessive when it came to antiquity and considered their society modern and better than the Middle Ages due to its revival.

     Art, literature, and politics showed perceptions of the renewal of antiquity and the love of antiquity while being part of humanism. Humanism has worked through these mediums making them vessels for humanism and illustrating what people of the Renaissance held as important. While the humanist movement is often considered secular, many humanists viewed their movement within Christianity, but humanism did differ along gender lines. The humanist movement produced one of the longest forms of education and views held in history. While still taught today, nothing can compare to the time of the Renaissance.

[maverickniner]

Slice of History: Fall of the Samurai as a Warrior Class

     Samurais became well established in the Muromachi period lasting from 1336-1460 with Ashikaga Takauji taking the title of shogun in 1336. By 1336, Japan had established its warrior class and firm control over the land and people; in addition, restoring the court became the main goal of Japan. Restoring the court became a big project and increased the shogun's control and samurais' control. However, as new shoguns ascended to power, the warrior class came to its peak under the rule of Hideyoshi and eventually threatened by the coming years of Tokugawa and the Meiji periods.

     The samurais worked hard to gain their current positions as of 1336. Through war and strife among local rulers to the rise of the shogun, Many warriors died. Many have done things unimaginable and lived through Japan's worse wars to allow their family to rise in the samurai class itself. In addition, as discussed in the previous essay, samurais rose out of the peasantry and fields to become a dominate power serving the shogun and eventually provincial lords as the feudal system took hold in Japan. However, to understand the position of the samurai and its eventual decline, one must understand the time period and the three men that lead samurais to their peak of power and to their eventual decline with the rising power of foreign influence.

     Upon the end of the Muromachi period, central Japan was struck by a series of civil wars in 1467 spreading throughout the country in the next hundred years. Ashikaga's authority was destroyed in the process. Eventually Lords turned on each other releasing their samurais to seize each other's land; however, it became a pattern that the ambitious lord would fall to an even more ambitious vassal. Samurais not only took their place as warriors during this period but in the broader political spectrum. As the wars continued, the pattern of a vassal overthrowing a lord became more frequent, most great families in 1450 were gone a century later. New men emerged in the 1500's that were more bold, ruthless, and willing to exploit the lands with more efficiency so they could lead large armies. Although there were several that had the ambition to rule japan, three would come to create a unified Japan; first under a ‘samurai police state' to eventual revocation of rights and installation of a modern government. The period following the Muromachi period is known as, “the Sengoku period, or ‘the country at war’ period”(Beasley 117). The scale and techniques used in warfare made this period distinct. This war produced many worthy samurais as well as many experienced samurais. Although it is normal for a war period to produce experienced warriors than a period of peace; in addition, the wars separated men of skill and men without talent. One of the major Daimyos and leaders that rose during the Sengoku period was Oda Nobunaga who would begin the unification of Japan. Samurais had much to do with this process, daimyos did not have power without samurai to serve them. However, it must also be understood that foot soldiers were also in wide use during this time period; samurais could not be discarded like foot soldiers could. Oda Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa were samurais themselves who rose to the power of shogun in unified Japan. However, as stated above, foreign influence played a significant role in ending samurai power. Guns were introduced to Japan via European trade which changed warfare in the 1500's. Oda Nobunaga became famous for using units of riflemen to fight battles; the battlefield was forever changed. The Sengoku wars came to an end in 1560 leaving Japan with its final phase of unification. Oda Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa were the three men to finally unify Japan; Nobunaga never took office as shogun, but he did manipulate government up to his death in 1582 at Kyoto. Samurais received numerous rights during Nobunaga's accent to power. Samurais not only held their rights from the Muromachi period but also gained extensive rights over the life and death of many peasants. The samurais could strike down peasants with his blade upon being insulted. After the death of Nobunaga, Hideyoshi took control as shogun with Tokugawa's agreement.

     Hideyoshi was what some historians would call a ‘friend' to the samurai class. He helped the class prosper under his rule. Being of a humble origin, Hideyoshi grew from being a peasant to being a samurai and eventually becoming shogun. Around this time period, ronin or masterless samurai were also springing up mostly from the peasantry and other lower classes. He being from a peasant family, Hideyoshi created a law in 1586 that created and codified that samurai status was as permanent and hereditary. In addition, it was further stated and codified that those not of the samurai class were not allowed to carry weapons. The event of gathering arms from the peasants and non-samurai was considered by many to be a sword hunt and famously associated with Hideyoshi. Samurais not only had extensive rights over the peasants, but even the peasants could not protect themselves they were fully reliant on the samurai and their rare blessings.

     The cavern that began to form between samurai and the other classes grew; upon 1600, the samurai had been given an almost godly position while the peasants were left as sheep. Many similarities exist between the samurai class and the medieval knights of Europe. Although the samurai had knowledge, knew how to read and write, and were trained in Confucianism and the art of war, they could still be violent and ruthless while exploiting their position in society.

     The end of the sword hunt marked the end of social mobility, or what was left of it, in Japan until the Meiji period. Swords were a symbol of power and respect which were now only carried by samurai and those at court who were also samurai. Laws issued forth from Hideyoshi were catered toward samurais as shown by the decrees mentioned above. However, wars ended leaving samurais to sit and think, many practiced on dummies or cut down peasants out of sheer ruthlessness and restlessness. Upon the rule of Hideyoshi, wars were never to occur at the scale of the Sengoku wars and most trifles that did occur were solved in other manners. Samurais, although being the only ones who could carry a sword, had little to use their sword on since Hideyoshi had, "moved to differentiate warriors and farmers in the interest of peace and stability”(Howland 355). Hideyoshi exited office as Shogun in 1598 and was succeeded by Tokugawa Ieyasu starting the Tokugawa Dynasty of Tokugawa Shogunate lasting from 1600 to 1868. Tokugawa began the true Edo period and began to stabilize the feudal period in Japan. Foreigners made themselves present in Japan resulting in samurai losing their rights they gained in previous centuries.

     Tokugawa Ieyasu was the first shogun of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the most effective when compared to successors. By this time, wars were nonexistent; Ieyasu had eliminated or convinced most of those who were risky to keep in affairs of the Tokugawa Shogunate. Samurais were now without a true job, although they would have others; the samurai had no warfare as they once did and the new generation of samurais were lacking when compared to veterans of the Sengoku period. Apprenticeships to train younger samurai became common. However, increasingly the samurai became courtiers and bodyguards; they also gradually transformed into civil servants of the government or aristocratic bureaucrats for the daimyo. Since war was rarely present since the 17th century, samurais gradually lost their military function. Around the 1700s, the samurai also served as guards to other officials on traveling business. There were few jobs for a samurai's livelihood. As time went on, samurais found their world and class status shrinking from what it once was; “During the Tokugawa period, the samurai class suffered increasing poverty, and this is evident”(Nomura 3). Stipends were cut and it was made illegal for them to ask for handouts or to take jobs under those people of lower class such as merchants and other business. It was also illegal for the samurai to engage in business or mercantilism. However, this is a phenomenon of this period; samurais who were desperate did so illegally but also secretively. Merchants were rising and eventually even farmers were able to eat better than some samurai; as a result, some samurais engaged in trade or taking jobs under merchants and others to survive, but they did so very discreetly as to not get caught and punished. Already the samurais were decreasing from their once powerful status in society. By the late 1700s, some of the samurai families were heavily involved in mercantilism and owned monopolies on certain goods. It became difficult for the shogun to control such growing mercantile families since most of his samurais and the daimyo owed debts to the mercantile families. However, the samurai still had a legal right to cut down a commoner, but it is very hard to determine the extensive use of this right due to the lines between commoner and samurai beginning to blur. Ronin became a problem when the central government issued an order for the daimyos to cut their armies. Ronins further blurred the line between commoner and samurai where commoners were in some cases better off than samurais. Samurais were still loyal to their lord, but there was a gradual feeling among the samurai of loyalty belonging to Japan as a state upon the beginning of the 1800s. Tokugawa further restricted samurai’s activities briefly, but when under threat of debt he let the businesses pursue and created a police for the samurais. However, what really caused the samurai to lose prominence in Japanese society; in other words, what caused the samurai status to shrink and eventually come to dissolution in the late 19th century? Although the Tokugawa did limit the samurais' rights and restricted their behavior, the Tokugawa Shogunate did not destroy the samurai class; they themselves were samurai. Both foreign influence and the decisions of the Tokugawa lead to the dissolution of the warrior class.

     Japan throughout the Tokugawa period, or 1600 to 1868, was held in isolation while maintaining contact and limited trade with desirable nations. The Dutch were allowed to continue very limited trade due to them helping suppress Christian riots and not spreading missionaries or foreign religion. China and local islands were also kept in the trade network. Isolation pertained mostly to European powers and others who were dangerous or considered a burden due to their spread of religion. These events of contact, although it did influence the central government, impacted the samurai who engaged in mercantilism and whom eventually gained monopolies on certain goods. It did help them protect their businesses and made some families wealthier than previous generations. Besides these events, it was the opium wars they began the dissolution of the warrior into bureaucrats and civil servants. The Opium Wars 1839 to 1842 shocked Japan; China had long been the superpower of the Asian continent, but the long relation with Britain and other European powers displayed its weaknesses resulting in the Opium Wars and the British conquest of mainland China. The second Opium War from 1856 to 1860 convinced Japan to reconsider its position in the world and the samurai class. Europe was becoming increasingly powerful and the mere fact that an island nation such as Britain conquered China horrified Japan that they may be next. Colonial powers were encroaching on Asia for its natural resources and markets while displaying its power when meeting resistance. Japan’s samurais were well-trained warriors, but nothing when compared to the industrial might of Europe and America; the superiority of technology among the British and Americans brought some of the Japanese to see that modernization was needed. While some samurais felt loyalty to the Japan as a whole, the Shogun still had supporters. With hard work, these men and samurais would eventually oust the Tokugawa Shogunate for a new Japan.

     As discussed earlier, the samurai class had risen and fallen to become hardly distinguishable from the peasant class while some samurai became more bureaucratic in the late 1800’s. These bureaucratic and civil servant samurais and mercantile samurai families were the new images of what the samurai would become. No longer was the warrior a symbol of just war.

     The year of 1852 marked the year that, “it was widely known that an American naval expedition was being prepared to undertake negotiations with Japan”(Beasley 191). America with the help of Commodore Mathew Perry opened Japan to the world; Britain was soon to follow and eventually France. These powers would also make themselves known to the internal struggle between the old and the progressive movement to install the emperor and modernize. The Tokugawa Shogunate faced off against the new samurai leaders wanting to install the emperor for a modern state. However, the shogun could not muster enough troops and the French support also hurt his cause. Many Japanese at the time, especially the samurai, were afraid that Japan would end like China; the shogun having France as an ally alienated a lot of support. Modern infantry units and rifles replaced the original samurai warrior class and usage. Hair was fashioned as the westerners and forms of dress were also adopted. The last samurais perished with the Shogunate; however, only the image disappeared. Through a series of minor civil wars, the Tokugawa Shogunate relinquished command to the emperor, Meiji. The nationalistic samurais were victorious; now the samurais were not loyal to just the Shogunate, but to Japan as a whole. Old customs were torn away under the new government to help modernize Japan and to help protect Japan from outsiders. Samurais no longer had extensive power; they were further banned from wearing swords period. Swords were no longer allowed to political meetings anymore. However, samurais did not disappear entirely, the teachings of the samurai followed into the new government. The Meiji government is complex deserving its own focus; it also is subject to debate on whether or not the samurai elite politicians had more power than the emperor or if they shared power. Upon instituting the government in 1868, the samurai had lost much of their status as a warrior. Instead, the samurai were transformed into businessmen, civil servants, and some samurai were even transformed into high politicians. Although they did not carry swords anymore, they did lead a nation to successfully modernize and match the outside world. The sword was now a metaphor of these men; without the devotion to the new Japan and the teachings of the samurai following into the new government, one could argue that Japan may not have survived modernization. Japan quickly modernized at a rapid pace with samurai decedents gathering knowledge abroad and expanding Japan's horizon. By the 1920's, Japan and the samurai class were as modernized as other industrial countries and classes. 

     Samurais' former image is of the past; however, the samurai did not disappear, rather the samurai just changed. The samurai evolved into a modern warrior. The businesses suit his armor. Eventually, the samurai would reappear as a warrior in World War II. However, the classic samurai will always be remembered by the world through books, comics, and Hollywood. The samurai teachings have proved to be indestructible.

Bibliography: Beasley, W.G. The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan. London,            England: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 2000. Print. Beasley, W.G. Japanese Imperialism 1894-1945. New York: Oxford Press, 1987.      Print. Howland, Douglass R. “Samurai Status, Class, and Bureaucracy: A                          Historiographical Essay.” The Journal of Asian Studies 60.2 (2001): 353-380        JSTOR. Web. 9 Nov. 2012 Nomura, Kanetaro. Tokugawa Hokenshakai no Kenkyu. Tokyo, Japan: Nikko            Shoin, 1931. Print.

[maverickniner]

Slice of History: Rise of the Warrior Class in Japan

     Warrior classes exist throughout history in many forms as well as in almost every culture known to modern man. However, all of these warriors arose due to different circumstances in different periods of time belonging to different cultures. These warrior classes develop into their prime, the same is true for the samurai class. The samurai class did not just appear out of the mist one day in Japan. The samurai developed out of the Nara Period into the Muromachi Period to become what the modern world recognizes as a samurai. 

     The period before Nara was archaic, not to mean old or unsophisticated, but to imply that Japan had not formalized or organized themselves fully. The mountains proved to be barriers and Japan was ruled mainly by clans or chiefdoms. These clans or chiefdoms were usually in the form of a warrior male and a shaman female. However, influence from China and Korea permeated throughout Japan, leading them to adopt institutions and customs of their choosing. With Shintoism, a native religion of Japan, the Japanese formed the royal court similar to China. However, in the Japanese royal court, the emperor was the decedent of the sun goddess and could not be removed as emperors could be removed in China. However, clans still existed; they just recognized the court and emperor. During this time, the warriors were not as recognized; many of them were farmers and acted as a militia. These warriors were merely armed farmers; warfare was present, but not to the scale that warfare would become in later periods of history. This is not to imply that skilled warriors did not exist, they did, but very rarely and still farmed for a living; these warriors were not similar to what modern people view as a samurai.  The peasants regularly attended fields and when the village or town was endangered, they would arm themselves. The Nara Period came to formalize Japan and link it together through the court and emperor by developing several institutions; however, these institutions were not fully sound and started to decline around 792 as the court went into disarray. It is this year, 792, that marks the rise of the warrior class to become what we know as a samurai. 

     Samurais came into development during the wars of the Taira Clan and Minamoto Clan during the Heian Period lasting from 794 to 1185. The Taira and Minamoto clan, along with the Fujiwara and Tachibana clan, dominated Japanese politics during the Heian Period and ultimately resulted in the formation of samurais. The Taira controlled Japan exclusively through the court from 1156-1160; during this time the Taira placed importance on land rights and the warriors in control of them. Vassalage, or a person who entered into a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, was on the rise, but still not as full-fledged samurais. To demonstrate how much vassals or warriors would come to dominate culture and politics, an “Edo-drama depicts Yoshitsune’s, the leader of the Taira, retainer, Benkei, as a hero”(Beasley 81) for assassinating his lord. Warriors were farming as the regular class was although they were more recognized and militarized when compared to the Nara Period; this would change when conflicts arose between the Taira and Minamoto Clans starting in the 1160’s to the 1180’s. It came down to a series of battles between the Minamoto and Taira; those people in service to one or the other clan just had to hope that he or she chose the winning side. War became part of daily life; trained peasants that once acted as a militia grew into hardened soldiers with military knowledge. They started being held above farmers and other classes due to war and defense being of importance; martial arts started being formed as influence from China further spread. Religion was also changing with Buddhism being introduced; Buddhism would later have an impact on the warrior’s class that was developing. These warriors that flourished were not yet called samurai and did not have all the exclusive rights their class would eventually gain until the wars between the Taira and Minamoto were settled. Upon the Minamoto Clan gaining the advantage of the people; Yoritomo, the leader of the Minamoto Clan, gained the upper hand in the battlefield. The dispute was settled in one last naval battle when the Taira were defeated; Yoritomo took charge in 1183 setting the warrior’s dominance as a social class in Japan.

     Under Yoritomo's control, the warrior class developed into a class separate from the peasantry and became honored among the population. The land and warriors were reigns of control under Yoritomo; the court was avoided thus developing two paths to power, the court or the warriors. Several influences gave rise to the warriors, but Yoritomo is the main source of their true beginnings, he started the distinguishment of warriors from the other classes. Denying that outside sources influenced Japan and warriors would be an understatement, but true samurais developed from actions happening internally between clans, emperors, and others. Yoritomo gave these warriors exclusive land rights and required pledges of fealty and service. He was ultimately creating an extensive service class of warriors to govern the land. Warriors were now figures of the government answering to Yoritomo. 1180 marks the first main jump for the warrior class; during 1180, “to regulate his dealings with this large following, Yoritomo had founded the Retainers’ Office (Samurai-dokoro)”(Beasley 82). Warriors were now known as Samurai and start to conform to modern day images of the samurai. Due to these warriors rising into higher standards than peasants or artisans, the Monchujo, or feudal court, was established to settle disputes over land rights, boundaries, and even questions of vassalage. Vassalage became the most prominent way for the samurais to rise in rank and honor; the samurai’s actions were also very important to him and his rank. Samurais were expected to fight and never run from death; to run away would mean dishonor which could result in hara-kiri, or ritual suicide. It is also around this time that the samurais took great interest in martial arts to defend themselves on the battlefield; martial arts were exclusive to the warrior class until much later when peasants as well started to learn. In addition to martial arts, the warrior class started developing a code, often referred to as Bushido, way of the warrior. This code was being furnished eventually coming to full completion during the rise of the Tokugawa. Buddhism was also present and mixed with Shintoism which is important to the warrior class. Many attached to it because it brought a little peace and beauty into their lives. These warriors, although hardened due to warfare, were not as cold as some may assume. Many of them were literate, wrote poetry, and meditated. These practices became part of the samurai as they advanced through society to become the dominate class. However, this structure was not fully set in stone until 1190, the year of the first pronounced shogun in the history of Japan. 

     Yoritomo ascended as shogun, or sei-i-tai-shogun, in 1190 bring the warrior class to its upper-class status. By this time, the warriors were recognizable throughout the public; they were armed and acted as landlords too many peasants (no longer were these men in the rice/millet fields). They rarely received any punishment other than from the shogun himself or death by the edge of the sword. During this time there were few restrictions on samurai; even the law was not subject to them, they answered only to the shogun. The Hōjō Regency came to replace Yoritomo’s Regency as shogun; Hōjō proved the power of the warrior in his dispute with Go-Toba. Go-Toba's goal was to restore the court, with a weak warrior class this could or might have been possible, but the warrior class present in Japan was not weak at this time. Although Go-Toba did rally support from warriors, Hōjō demonstrated his increasing control of the Bakufu, the shogun’s government, and the warriors of this government. With the pacification of Go-Toba’s rebellion, the shogun rose to be a figurehead similar to the emperor and his warriors were his power. Without warriors, the shogun would be powerless, not to say he would not be respected, but his will would be much weaker. Now, step back and remember when warriors were just peasants and farmers answering the call to battle when they, their family, or their village were in trouble; now compare these people to the samurais present during the reign of the first Shoguns. These warriors were hardened, respected, and answered only to the shogun. They controlled land and in some cases the people who worked the land. Under Hōjō, the system of vassalage became complex, vassals for vassals developed; warriors became teachers to younger warriors. The emperor still held power as a figure, but “at this time, the emperor…claims to power were clearly unrealistic…he had the means, moreover, to muster a sufficient body of armed support”(Beasley 86). The emperor and shogun were two, sometimes equal, pathways of power, but the warriors determined the amount of power. Without warriors, the emperor and shogun would be powerless to a point. Kamakura, upon gaining a firm hold on power and obtaining the shogun title starting the Kamakura Period, used their warriors or vassals to serve as jito. Now warriors were serving as land stewards giving them further power and essentially putting them higher up on the social ladder. Even with all this power, the “jito did not remain content with the modest share of the crop…that they were allotted in recompense for their services”(Beasley 86). Those who refused some of the gokenin’s, or the warrior in charge, demands with respect to land usage and other forms of land service ended in a sense of grievance among the gokenin. These vassals were now being offered same terms from patrons and proprietors as the shogun had been offering them; loyalty is important to warriors of this period, but they also knew where the power really was, without them, no one could enforce their will. 

     Some historians argue that the will of the master was absolute, but warriors were known for disobeying and increasing their honor by doing so if they did not agree with their master. One such example to illustrate this fact was used earlier, but it should show how big of an importance the warrior had in society; the vassal that killed the Taira leader was honored, not thought of as a traitor, but the vassal definitely did not follow his master's orders. Warriors had some leverage to make their own choices within reason. Their position in society came to its peak after the attack of the Mongols. The shogun and his warriors defended Japan from the Mongols, they fought furiously and with the help from nature Japan survived and remained unconquered. Samurais were the main reason why Japan survived, the court as in the Nara Period would have never been able to hold off the Mongols successfully which the conquest of China proves. This led the samurai to solidifying traditions and values; the followed a way of life different from other classes and that way of life was the way of the sword or Bushido. However, samurais were also trained not just on foot but on horseback, archery, and other forms of combat throughout the Heian Period.

     Contact from other countries such as Korea and China lead to the introduction of horses, new schools of thought, religion, and as Japan has always done, they picked and adopted what they found useful. Religion such as Buddhism, mixed with Shintoism, gave the warrior a sense of peace and beauty as discussed earlier; this way the warrior was not just a bloodthirsty brute. Upon defeating the Mongols, Japan had some of the best archery schools. Samurais were even more deadly on the battlefield with horses. The adoption of horses on the battlefield was probably one of the most significant impacts of cultural exchange. Horses were revolutionary for traveling, fighting, archery, and forms of training. By the end of the Heian Period, the samurais have risen to what the modern world would consider a samurai, they have power, but they also write poetry and follow a code of honor. The samurai was not only a warrior on the battlefield but also a philosophical and educated man upon the beginning of the Muromachi period.

     The Muromachi period would last from 1336-1460 with Ashikaga Takauji taking the title of shogun in 1336. By this time, Japan had established its warrior class, but the court and aristocracy had fallen in decay and out of order; Ashikaga sends out a program to restore the aristocracy and fix the damage. The goal of restoring the court would come to be a big project and increase the shogun’s control. However, as time goes on, the warrior class would find its own people threatened and ultimately find itself having rights and titles taken away.  

Bibliography: Beasley, W.G. The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan. London,            England: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 2000. Print. Bellah, Robert. Tokugawa Religion. New York: The Free Press. 1957. Print. Lu, Cheng-li, and Sheng-Wei Wang. "Ideological and Cultural Influences of              China On Korea and Japan (I) - Another Chapter To Reading The Mirrors Of        History." Chinausfriendship.Com (2012): 1. Academic Search Complete.              Web. 26 Sept. 2012. Sharf, Robert H. "The Zen Of Japanese Nationalism." History Of Religions 33.1        (1993): 1. Academic Search Complete. Web. 26 Sept. 2012.

[maverickniner]

Slice of History: Islam in India (Mughal Dynasty and Scars on Modern India)

     Islam comprises as one of the three largest religions in the world to date. Over the many years, it began to expand to encompass a wide variety of people and lands through peace and war. However, one of the lands claimed by Islam sponsored a different type of Islam. India has long been a target for conquerors before Britain ever set its eye on the jewel of the east. Education, politics, and militancy would demonstrate the difference of Islam in India when compared to the rest of the world.

     Islam’s origins and how it evolved throughout Arabia is important to understanding Islam in India. Islam began in the Arab world; before, the people were merely desert nomadic people. Organization was not widely present, but there were various leaders spread throughout the desert. These rulers were nothing like kings.  Muhammad, Muhammad Ibn `Abd Allāh Ibn `Abd al-Muttalib, lead a revolutionary faith that would come to unite the Arab people into one force; the faith was named Islam. After his death in 632 AD in Medina, Islam became a full military force to be reckoned with; like many Christians, Muslims believe it was and still is their duty to spread their faith. Many people they conquered transferred to their religion. Many individuals were forced or made the decision themselves. Foreign rulers would sometimes choose to adopt Islam without any coercion such as the Mongols and specifically the descendants of the Mongol conquerors Timur and Chinghiz Khan. These rulers and their descendants were to be the ones who would come to impact India directly and come to define Islam in India. The Mughals, the people directly descended from Timur and Chinghiz Khan, invaded India around 1185 AD; however it must be noted that there were previous attempts at invasion, but the first major advancement into India occurred in 1185. The Mughals had much success due to their organization while India was not organized during the time period. Lead by Babur, the Mughal dynasty became established in the Indian subcontinent; under Babur and his son, Akbar, their rule became different than other Islam ruler. They were not religious fanatics and the “Mughal leader Akbar promoted religious equality for his subjects” (Francis Robinson). They wanted to fuse the religions in India further to form a new religion; nowhere else in the Islamic empire has such a notion been considered thus the Islam that came to India was performed differently. One major difference between Islam in India and elsewhere is the fact that, “Female politicians such as Nur Jahan and Maham Anga had great influence during the Mughal empire” (Francis Robinson).  By 1579, Akbar had declared himself as the last court and infallible. Marking the end of his rule to 1607, a series of weak rulers would take the throne and many of them were not as tolerant as Babur and Akbar with religion. However, they left a permanent religion in India which would come to impact society and politics through education, militancy, and gender.  

     Education is important in modern India, but it was also important in medieval India. Many educational traditions were passed to Islam people because of Hindus. According to Saiyid, “Indian scholars were able to leave a mark on the world of Islamic scholarship especially in the fields of ḥadīth”(Jafri). Islam received a large amount of knowledge from India during the Mughal Dynasty. Other Islamic countries did preserve the knowledge of its conquered lands but would have considered Hindus infidels. Hindus would have never been allowed to contribute directly to the preserved body of knowledge. Education was the tool through which medieval India transferred the society’s knowledge as a whole; however, it was confined to the few who were able to grasp the transmission. Much of the education was in the language of the elites and not available to regular people. Initially, India’s form of education was alongside Islam, but when the Mughals gained full control, their form of education became dominate; although India’s education system did not disappear, it became a modified system. From the 7th century CE onwards, India has felt the influence of Islam upon their traditions as well as their knowledge. Maktabs began to populate the region and much of Islamic schooling took place in these structures; they have become very popular in India as well. Many of the Islamic rulers came to adopt much of India’s teachings mixing them with their own teaching; this act of cross-culturalization came to define modern-day India as well as the relations between Islam and Hinduism. One must also recognize that it was this cross-culturalization that allowed both Hindus and Muslims a unique learning environment.  

     In addition to the impact on education, militancy and societal relationships were also impacted greatly depending on the ruler. As discussed previously, Babur and Akbar were very religious tolerant and enforced it by law. However, Akbar’s son, Jahangir, was not as tolerant as his predecessors. He believed in Islam’s superiority and disliked Hindus; placing unfair taxes on them for being Hindu caused religious tensions between Hindus and Muslims. As a result, many Muslims and Hindus came to conflict and sometimes violent conflict. These conflicts would continue into modern day India. According to Kanekar and Shariffa M., “Hindus and Muslims, comprising the two major communities in India, have had occasional conflicts for centuries.” Jahangir and his successors marked the dramatic change in relations; those after Babur and Akbar would not enforce religious toleration and had no dreams of a new religion. Despite education and militancy, gender has also heavily impacted Indian society and politics.

     Women have long had a lesser place in society when compared to men, but that was not always true in Mughal India and could explain the friction in modern day India with gender relations. As stated before, some women enjoyed great political success in the Mughal Dynasty. However, politics has also greatly impacted gender as well. Politics in the Mughal Dynasty often fell to some women and especially when the rulers were weak, but at the same time, many of their rights were taken back as more extremists took control of power. Muslim women enjoyed a fairly enjoyable life under Babur and Akbar, but not under later rulers. Many of the women were still not equal and ultimately were never equal when compared to a man. Movements in both Hindu and Islamic circles for more equality grew; many of these movements began in India and have the highest probability of working in India today. Even in modern India, religion poses a problem to women rights as it did in the Mughal Dynasty. According to Hassan,

“Against those who argue that, in the current communal conjuncture, reform within Muslim personal laws or Islamic feminism is the best strategy for enhancing the scope of Muslim women's rights, the article argues that such an approach tends to freeze identities within religious boundaries. It shows how women's and minority rights are used within the politics of religion to sideline the agenda of women's rights.”

Politics, gender, and religion both affect each other on both Muslims and Hindus in India. Gender is a heated debate in India, but India also seeks to remain democratic. Although the topic may seem modern, it goes as far back as the Mughal conquest and cross-culturalization. Even to this day, gender and women rights are juggled with politics and religion creating conflict between Muslims and Hindus.  

     Education, militancy, and gender have both affected and been affected by politics and society in Mughal India. Modern India demonstrates these scars, but if there is a possibility of change the possibility is now.  

Bibliography:

Hasan, Zoya. "Gender, Religion and Democratic Politics in India." Third World          Quarterly 31, no. 6 (September 2010): 939-954. Academic Search Complete,      EBSCOhost (accessed March 28, 2013).

Jafri, Saiyid Zaheer Husain. "Education and transmission of knowledge in                medieval India." Intellectual Discourse 20, no. 1 (January 2012): 79-                    102. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed March 28, 2013).

Kanekar, Suresh, and Shariffa M. Merchant. "CROSS-CULTURAL                            NOTES." Journal Of Social Psychology 117, no. 2 (August 1982):                          295.Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed March 28, 2013).

Robinson, Francis. "THE MUGHAL DYNASTIES." History Today 57, no. 6 (June      2007): 22-29. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost(accessed March 28,      2013).

Wolpert, Stanley. The New History of India. New York: Oxford University Press,        2009. Print.

[maverickniner]

Slice of History: Christianity’s Rise and Expulsion from Japan

     Religions spread throughout areas that are absent of that religion such as Japan with Christianity; some areas accept the new message while some of the people and governments do not. The Asian continent was one such place where Christians found it hard to spread their faith with some areas rejecting the religion entirely. However, this does not imply that their relationship with the people was simply good or bad; it was complicated and became more complicated over time. One such place where Christians faced challenges was in Japan and in the end, they would not find common ground.

     The arrival of Christians in Japan was only a matter of time; eventually with contact from European nations Christianity would be brought aboard their ships to the land of Buddhism and Shintoism. To better understand Christianity and its expulsion from Japan, the first martyr as well as the Jesuit Order in japan should be understood.  

     The first visitors to arrive in japan from Europe were the Portuguese whose ships landed in 1542 bringing with them Europe and its technology; however, they also brought with them their religion. Jesuit missionaries followed the Portuguese and other European vessels in their mission to bring Christianity to whom they considered savage in nature similar to the Native Americans. Francisco Xavier led the Jesuits into uncharted territory out in the Mediterranean and specifically Japan. The Jesuits, as well as Xavier, were bold and fearless men, often with a military background and ready to die for their ideology. They were also well-educated men. This does not imply that they came to Japan as a military force or demanding, but they did have to rework their approach to Japan and its people. They soon came to understand that the Japanese people were interested in technology and knowledge offered by the Jesuits more than their religion. Xavier and the Christians were allowed to preach upon arrival and did convert some Japanese, a considerable number, but nothing compared to Buddhism, Confucianism, and Shintoism. However, Jesuits, as well as Christianity, seemed similar to the other religions present in the region except the loyalty required by the Jesuits and Christians often conflicted with the other religions. To the Buddhist, one could be of many religions including Christianity, but Christians' viewed religion as one devotion; in other words, a Christian could not be a Buddhist too. In addition, Christians and the Jesuits were loyal to the Pope which disturbed many of the leaders of Japanese Society around the 17th Century and lead to violence. This does not imply that Christians never had any patrons at court and in powerful families, they frequently did although at a low number and decreasing as the 17th Century progressed. For instance, in the mid-16th Century, Francisco Xavier established a sect in Japan known as Kakure Kirishitan (established in 1549). The Kakure Kirishitan sect proves that Christianity was successful at first; “the poignant tale of the sect begins in 1549 when Jesuit Missionary Francis Xavier brought Roman Catholicism to Japan. The new creed soon gathered 300,000 followers; including most of the inhabitants of Ikitsuki, but its success also spelled its doom” (Japan's Crypto-Christians). This sect would not be possible without patrons among the Japanese people. One such patron was Lord Oda Nobunaga, a powerful leader in Japan during the 16th Century, and with policies aimed towards Christians.

     Lord Oda Nobunaga supported Christianity, but not because he believed in it or the ideology; Nobunaga existed in a time of war, struggle, and unrest. Nobunaga had united most of Japan, but unrest persisted; however, he saw Christianity and came to believe that it would be a good controlling force to settle people down and keep them from rebelling. Why not Buddhism? Many Buddhist temples were armed and had become a quick enemy of Nobunaga. Christianity had not yet posed such a threat to him and was viewed to be very similar to Buddhism. As a result, Nobunaga became a sort of patron, but only if it served him in return. He further supported the establishment of the first Christian church in Kyoto in 1576. Nobunaga was curious about the Jesuits; once, he grew interested in a slave in the service to the Jesuit inspector of missions, He later requested that the slave be left in service to him. Of all the powerful leaders in Japan during this time period, Nobunaga was probably the most curious one. Even though it is evident that he really only cared about uniting Japan and not religion or other pursuits, he did not fully reject Christianity. For instance, the slave left by the Jesuit became highly favored by Nobunaga and eventually fought in the final battle with him at Honnō-ji. Clearly, Nobunaga's mind was in the military, conquest, and how the Jesuits may serve him to help him win. In addition, as stated before, Christianity offered an alternative to Buddhism. Buddhism came under extreme persecution due to monks carrying arms and fighting; monks were mainly motivated due to Nobunaga wanting to separate religion from politics. Buddhist during the 16th Century were heavenly involved with politics as well as quarrels between lords. However, this form of government that Nobunaga was building, one where the Christians may have actually established a firm hold in Japan, ended with his death. The biggest patron of the Jesuits had passed and now they were coming under fire from the new shogun, Hideyoshi. 

     Before discussing Hideyoshi and the rapid expulsion of Christians during his reign, people must understand that “Mediterranean-based Christianity is said to have failed as an institution because of persecution by the Japanese rulers”(Nelson 94). This is true, but like Nelson also states that the life was still traveled by missionaries in Japan through Hideyoshi's edicts against Christians and well into the Tokugawa period.  

     The reign of Hideyoshi marks the expulsion of Christianity from Japan as well as extreme persecution of the faith and its members. In 1587, Hideyoshi banished Christian missionaries from the Kyūshū province to exert greater control on the Kirishitan daimyo in the region. This region housed converts similar to those of the first Christian sect established by Francisco Xavier in 1549; Hideyoshi was no supporter of their ideology which can be traced back to the Jesuits and their oaths of loyalty. Jesuits, as well as their faith, involved loyalty to the Pope in Rome. This caused distress among the Japanese elite as well as Hideyoshi; he did not want his people pledging themselves to a foreign power. Hideyoshi seen that it could provoke rebellions and could also lead Japan to invasion by Europeans. In addition, Hideyoshi issued an edict in 1587 expelling Christians from mainland Japan, but it must be known that records state missionaries were able to sneak in until 1593. The fact that missionaries sneaked into japan well after the edicts proves that, although the institution had failed in Japan, missionaries persisted in secrecy sometimes. Persecution of Christians was a public event for Hideyoshi; he wanted the Japanese people to watch and see what happens when he or she converted to Christianity. The persecution reached public eyes on February 5, 1597, when Hideyoshi executed twenty-six Franciscans as an example to the Japanese people for what happens when a person converts to Christianity. They were executed by public crucifixion in Nagasaki. However, paranoia and concern are not the only reasons why Hideyoshi executed the Twenty-Six Martyrs as they became known; people must understand the time period and how aggressive the Christians themselves were getting. Many of those who converted pledged loyalty to the Pope and often lead rebellions. Sometimes these rebellions had to be put down by the shogun. This was also a time of bringing Japan to unity and rest while putting an end to the wars. To Hideyoshi, missionaries had acted aggressive and intolerant toward present Japanese institutions when their countrymen were fighting and conquering parts of the world in the name of Christianity. As a result, Christianity was seen as a dire threat. Hideyoshi did not persecute Christians for reasons that cannot be understood, his concerns can be fully understood and especially during a crucial time period in Japanese history. With his death, Christians have mostly been swept from Japan; some of the sects went underground and Japan began to withdraw into itself during the reign of Tokugawa dealing away with the problem of missionaries. 

     The reign of Tokugawa gives further information to why Christianity was so detested and feared. Persecution of Christianity persisted and in some ways intensified during 18th and 19th Centuries under Tokugawa. The Protestant Reformation raging in Europe was not confined to European shores; it followed the missionaries into Japan. It provoked stronger animosity and difference within Japan even when Christianity was already banned by Hideyoshi. The Tokugawa took a further stance on the topic by issuing the Christian Expulsion Edict which banned Christianity, expelled foreigners, and further banned Christians from practicing their religion. This not only helped the Tokugawa to gain further control, to keep foreigners out, but to also help rid the country of Christian converts. In response to these edicts, many of the Kirishitans in Japan fled to other lands such as Portuguese Macau and the Spanish Philippines. However, Tokugawa’s first reaction to Christians was much different than Hideyoshi's response and mirrored that of Nobunaga. Tokugawa was first tolerant ruler wanting to gain from trade with European powers. In addition, his consultant, William Adam, was British and possibly influenced Tokugawa.  Upon the death of Williams, Tokugawa’s view changed and further expanded upon Hideyoshi's edicts and views of Christians. Similar fears provoked this response, in addition, Tokugawa feared that faith wars may become present in Japan and wreck his reign. Upon the issuing of the edicts, Japan went back into seclusion from the outside world and Christianity was defeated driving small sects even further underground. Although one sect would make itself known in a rebellion under Tokugawa’s descendant, Iemitsu, rule. During Iemitsu’s reign as shogun, the predominantly Christian population of Kyūshū  rose in revolt against him. The Shimabara Rebellion, as it became known, occurred in 1637 and was one of the first major Christian rebellions to take place in Japan. The uprising solidified the Tokugawa Shogunate’s position on Christianity and was crushed brutally with over 40,000 Christians being killed. After the Shimabara Rebellion, authorities of persecution were set up to enforce the new goal of nationwide persecution and removal of Christians. Those suspected of being Christians were expected to abandon their faith and dishonor symbols of Christianity often called fumie, or step-on picture. Those people who would not were killed usually by crucifixion or incineration. Those who did as they were told were then to register at a Buddhist temple and visit regularly. As a result, Christianity institutions failed and disappeared either being torn down or going underground.  One such example of Christianity going underground is the, “Kakure Kirishitan or crypto-Christians in Ikitsuki, Japan… Persecuted by the shogun, they still worship a "closetgod"(Japan's Crypto-Christians). The sect first established in Japan survived, but only by going underground. Christianity would not be allowed to flourish in Japan until the Meiji Period.

     Christians faced extreme hardships in Japan and Asia in general. The Mediterranean Christian institutions failed to take a strong foothold in Japan partially due to not being able to adapt itself fully to Japanese customs unlike Buddhism, Confucianism, and Shintoism. In addition, the faith faced other religions in the region and influence from China. To deny that the rulers of Japan had no say so in its development would be missing the point, if they sponsored Christianity it would have flourished, but instead, they feared it and drove it completely underground and isolated itself from the outside world. Only with the end of Tokugawa and reopening of Japan would Christianity come back, but never as strong as it was in other countries.    

Bibliography: Beasley, W.G. The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan. London,            England: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 2000. Print. Bellah, Robert. Tokugawa Religion. New York: The Free Press. 1957. Print. Fletcher, Robert S.G. "‘Returning Kindness Received’? Missionaries, Empire            And The Royal Navy In Okinawa, 1846–57*." English Historical Review                125.514 (2010): 599-641. Academic Search Complete. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. "Japan's Crypto-Christians." Time 119.2 (1982): 81. Academic Search Complete.      Web. 6 Oct. 2012. Nelson, John. "Myths, Missions, And Mistrust: The Fate Of Christianity In 16Th        And 17Th Century Japan." History & Anthropology 13.2 (2002): 93-111.                Academic Search Complete. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. Paramore, Kiri. "Hayashi Razan's Redeployment Of Anti-Christian Discourse:          The Fabrication of Haiyaso." Japan Forum 18.2 (2006): 185-206. Academic        Search Complete. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. Ward, Haruko Nawata. "Jesuit Encounters With Confucianism In Early Modern      Japan." Sixteenth Century Journal 40.4 (2009): 1045-1067. Academic Search      Complete. Web. 6 Oct. 2012.

[maverickniner]

Slice of History: The Bhagavad-Gita and Shaping Indian Society

     India has long been a land of mixing cultures and people; in addition, ideas, values, and religions have mixed. Religion itself is interesting in India and differs from any other place on Earth. Religious tolerance is present to such a high degree; there are hundreds of sects composing of Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, and others. More importantly is Hinduism which has influenced Indian society through one of its holy books, Bhagavad-Gita. The Bhagavad-Gita has shaped Indian society since its creation by shaping social roles and beliefs. 

     The Bhagavad-Gita, or simply called the Gita, is a 700-verse scripture that became part of an even bigger epic entitled, the Mahabharata. Composed as early as the fifth century, the Gita is credited as being one of the first written holy books to Hinduism that deals with salvation and humanity's questions about life. The Pandava Prince, Arjuna, is faced with a serious dilemma in the story when forced to face other members of his family in war; Lord Krishna acts as his guide and answers his questions. To determine how it shaped Indian society, the Gita should be observed in its historical context and what principles it teaches. For starters, the Gita, along with other holy books, saved Hinduism.

     Around the time the Gita was created, Buddhism and other religions were taking in major numbers of converts; Hinduism did not exist as organized as other religions. The Gita was written to attract these converts back to the basic Hinduism principles. Salvation and other topics were answered in the Gita in response to the Buddhist theory of salvation. Meditating also took an importance, but it must be noted that certain Hinduism sects always had a form of meditation called yoga. Yoga was now put into the spotlight due to the Gita, it became a form of salvation. However, the fact that Hinduism was losing converts shows one of the major effects that the Gita had on society in India. Hinduism thrives today in India, but without the Gita, this may not have been possible and the number of people it has today would be far less; the beautiful temples would have been lost. Islam's invasion of India in the 13th century could have ended Hinduism similar to many religions in other conquered regions. Islam itself took many converts, but the Gita helped Hinduism society stay together and keep its faith while being under foreign control. It must be noted that the Gita contributed majorly to Hindu society by simply allowing practitioners to bond and face extreme odds; it helped the religion survive to the modern times. Although the Gita helped preserve Hindu society, it contributed to the formation of many customs.

     The Gita stresses honor, duty, and  dharma through the conversation between Arjuna and Krishna. According to Wolpert and the verses, “he[Arjuna] wanted to abandon the epic struggle before it started, but Krishna reminded him that as a warrior, it was his primary duty (dharma) to fight”(81). Krishna, in the epic, stresses duty and continues to throughout the verses; dharma, or duty, is one of the central components to the Gita. Indian society took these teachings to heart and one could argue it helped create the caste system present in India; the caste system is still somewhat present today in India. The value stressed on the warrior and priest classes rose them above others. Although Krishna does not directly state this, it does give the notion that Priests are important due to them leading others to salvation and warriors are important almost as much due to war. Krishna stressed the importance of dharma, one must do their job to the utmost of their ability; this is a way to salvation. Class conflicts leading to uprisings are brought under control because of these principles. Hindu leaders or promising figures could argue a caste system by reflecting backward on Krishna's conversation with Arjuna; in other words, the Gita helps strengthen the caste system through heavenly authority. Wolpert states that "Hinduism…inextricably bound to the caste system”(82), Hinduism and the caste system were bound together through the Gita. Even though Krishna did not directly state a caste system was needed, he helped seal the fate of many people in the caste system. This also helps explain why the Brahmins, or priest, and warriors are at the top of the caste system. The Gita, by addressing duty and yoga, not only contributed to the caste system but in turn, it also helped with making women second class citizens.

     The Caste system, in turn, helped promote men and not promote women. Women were recognized, but never to the scale as men. Although this is common in many cultures, the fate of women in India was mainly due to the Gita and other books that stressed male superiority while sometimes demoting women or ignoring them entirely. The Gita describes two types of women in society. The first type of woman is someone who is the most dangerous, who is selfish, and so sex crazed that nothing can truly satisfy them. The other type of woman is the one who respects their husbands, who worship their elders, and who has patience. Now, some women would argue that this is not a bad representation of their place in Indian society, but some would argue that it demotes them to almost servant status, not equal with men. It is similar to the caste system and how it ultimately keeps people in their place due to the prospect of salvation. The argument could go either way, however. But the fact that it does not mention women as individuals as it does men, warriors, and others hints to the fact that women must be subservient to their husbands and not equal. Although in the Gita, Krishna does state that women should be treated kindly; however, kindness is in the eyes of the beholder. Women in India today still have fewer rights than men, but it is getting better as India is more liberal and progressive than it has been in the past.

     The Gita has shaped Indian society through reflection and interpretations; some are happy with the creations on society that the Gita inspired. Others may be unhappy and fighting for a more liberal progressive state. The situation is similar to other countries and their religions. But the Gita must be recognized as the glue that helped India and Hinduism to survive and for people to have common bonds. In return, however, the caste system and demotion of women also occurred. The Gita can be a double-edged sword, providing social unity and potential harm.

Bibliography: Aurobindo, Sri. Essays on the Gita. United Kingdom: Lotus PR, 1922. Print. Easwaran, Eknath. The End of Sorrow: The Bhagavad Gita for Daily Living (vol        1), Berkeley, California: Nilgiri Press, 1993. Print. Easwaran, Eknath. The Bhagavad Gita (Classics of Indian Spirituality). India:            Nilgiri Press, 2007. Print. Wolpert, Stanley. The New History of India. New York: Oxford University Press,        2009. Print.

[maverickniner]

Slice of History: The Game Theory of the Moon Race

     Shortly after the end of WWII, differences of ideology and superiority caused friction between the United States and the USSR to enter an era known as the Cold War beginning in 1947. However, the nuclear armament of both states and the gradual increase in arms lead to an arms race that put each state closer to physical conflict with one another. The technological race for space became a large part of the conflict. Dubbed as the Space Race by leaders of the United States and USSR, began in 1955 and lasted till around 1972. While related to Realist thinking, the Space Race was marked by an increase of technological advancements seen essential by both states to ensure national security. Beginning on August 2, 1955, the US stated that it was going to launch satellites beginning in 57' to 58' into space. Soviet leaders responded by starting their own space programs and research to launch satellites into space before the US achieved their goal. The USSR achieved space launch of Sputnik-1 before the United States on October 4, 1957. Conflict risks increased as the US sought to send astronauts to the moon degrading the Soviets' achievement of the launch of a mere satellite. The Space Race conflict is better understood through the use of Game Theory.

GAME THEORY:

     Game Theory describes situations between two or more states, or players, involved in a conflict where mathematical analysis of decision making produces the best outcome for the states or the players. The possible decisions of the states and the outcomes of those decisions are modeled on a grid displaying the different outcomes if the states or players cooperate or defect. Game theory outcomes change depending on the guiding philosophy; Game Theory according to Realism best explains why and how the Space Race proceeded through the 60s and early 70s.  Game Theory assumes limited to no interaction between the two players. As a result, the players are expected to choose the best selfish rational decision when making decisions to increase their security and position when compared to the other player. Each state makes choices assuming that the other state is making choices best benefiting themselves. The zero-sum determines when a player achieves a win or their goal the other player suffers in some form. With rational decisions, the final product of outcomes should center near zero. Game Theory is extensive due to modeling outcomes, but it can apply to the Space Race as much as any other part of the Cold War.

SPACE RACE ACCORDING TO GAME THEORY:

     Decisions made by the two states, the US and the USSR, can be modeled demonstrating the outcome of the Space Race. Decisions by the United States to launch satellites beginning on July 1, 1957, and lasting until December 31, 1958, are initial defect decisions according to Game Theory. The US increased its position while decreasing USSR's position due to the game being a zero-sum game. Players are only interested in “maximizing his/her playoff” (Martin 92). The USSR took these initial decisions to defect as well and began their own programs to launch satellites into orbiting space trying to increase their position. Both parties achieved a pending zero-sum game through their decisions and reactions. Later, the Jupiter-C rocket test would be successfully tested and launched making the Soviets lose points in the game. However, as Game Theory suggests, the Soviets soon made a decision that would increase their position of dominance in the game. The USSR later launched the R-7 rocket which dwarfed the United States' rocketry payload and which paved way for Sputnik-1. According to the Game Theory, the US would naturally make a decision to increase their points in a game getting away from a zero-sum game, but the Soviets make another quick decision throwing the game. In fear of the Unite States launching a satellite into orbit over the earth before the Soviets, the USSR, under Korolev, leader of the USSR Space Program, launched Sputnik-1 into space. The United States made the decision to move up their timetable for launching satellites. Failure of a satellite to launch and its destruction pushed the United States further into a negative position until the launch of Juno-1 and another subsequent launch of scientific observation satellites. “What player B [USSR] wins, player A [US] loses” (Quandt 70). Game Theory states that the Soviets were ahead in the game with the initial successful launch of their rocket and the launch of Sputnik-1, but the United States' launchings of multiple scientific satellites put them back on track with both being at a pending zero-sum. The race or game between the two players increased as the possibility of sending a human into space became a feasible goal. The USSR took another lead by sending Yuri Gagarin into space on April 12, 1961. This event humiliated the United States again reducing their position in the game. To beat the Soviets, the United States decided to launch Freedom-7 and to put Alan Shepard as the first astronaut to control the craft. Unlike the Soviets auto control, even if the ship did not achieve orbit, Shepard would be the first man to control a spacecraft. Game Theory suggests that the Soviets would naturally try to influence their position after Shepard. The USSR followed game theory and launched another mission, but with manual controls for their cosmonaut. The United States responded by launching a successful mission to put a man in orbit and making the game another pending zero-sum. While these decisions are modeled individually, “the payoffs in the cells are hypothetical, so there is no accumulation of payoffs during play; it is only the payoff in the final cell that matters” (Randall Stone 217). The Moon Race on April 20, 1961, would be the accumulation of the decisions with a payoff.

     The Space Race developed due to the concern for national security and power for each of the two players; according to Brian Martin, "the mathematical techniques used in Game Theory are geared to the achievement of a single goal: maximization of the security level" (91). Both wanted to increase their position of power and security which is illustrated in the game by choosing the best selfish option such as launching first and how they can one-up each other. Game Theory's zero-sum comes into play due to each player being equal by the end of a set of decisions explaining how the Space Race mirrored the Arms Race. The Moon Race marks the transition from a competitive game to a brief cooperative game and a game similar to Prisoners Dilemma. The United States and the USSR would diverge but reemerge to typical Realist Game Theory methods. On September 20, 1963, President Kennedy proposed that the US and USSR join space programs to get to the moon which would have resulted in a 2/2 split in the Prisoner's Dilemma according to Game Theory; both would have achieved an equal standing. Upon Kennedy's death, the cooperation between the two players ceased, both continued making decisions to influence their position and trying to beat the other. The USSR launched more than one man and woman into space while the United States continued launching missions improving astronauts’ workability in space. The outcomes of such decisions lead to each player's Moon Race. The United States' Apollo test flights resulted in the final result of Apollo-11 on July 20, 1969, resulting in winning the Prisoner's Dilemma game. According to Richard Quandt, "strictly competitive games, in fact, assume that what A loses, B wins and what A wins, B loses” (70). The USSR lost the race to the Moon and as a result lost the game with a negative sum ending the race. 

CONCLUSION:

     Game Theory explains the Space Race as a series of mathematical rational decisions made by the two states during the Cold War. Individual games for each decision are best to understand that one decision, but a game of the overall decisions made can also be modeled. The Space Race development through Game Theory can better help historians and others understand the era as well as their rational decision-making process. 

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Sources:

Martin, Brian. "The Selective Usefulness of Game Theory." Social Studies of            Science 8.1 (1978): 85-110. Print. JSTOR. Quandt, Richard E. "On the Use of Game Models in Theories of International            Relations."World Politics 14.1 (1961): 69-76. Print. JSTOR. Stone, Randall W. "The Use and Abuse of Game Theory in International                    Relations: The Theory of Moves." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 45.2            (2001): 216-44. Print. JSTOR.

[maverickniner]

Slice of History: Sejong the Great of Korea

     Kings throughout history bring either great prosperity or great danger to their kingdoms and people due to their choices. Some kings find it better to focus on science while other kings focus on military operations. However, Sejong the Great, King of Korea during 1418CE, brought prosperity, scientific advancement, and successful military campaigns to all of Korea.

     During the rule of Taejong, Sejong's father, Korea became a place of unquestionable authority. The King silenced his rivals and political opponents for the throne to gain absolute authority and power. Upon Sejong's birth in 1397CE, Taejong secured the throne through his bloodline, but Sejong was Taejong's third child in succession to the throne. At the age of 12, The High Court announced Sejong as the Grand Prince Choong-Nyung. He excelled in his studies making him his father's favored child above his two other brothers; however, his elder brother, Yangnyeong, was set to inherit the throne in 1404CE. Historians disagree on the exact circumstances that lead Sejong to inherit the throne, but some believe that Taejong was not thrilled with Yangnyeong's leisurely activities. Others believe that Yangnyeong abdicated in favor for Sejong. Upon Sejong's inauguration, Sejong's second eldest brother became a monk 1418CE. Immediately Sejong went to the task of improving Korea.

     First, Sejong promoted traditional Confucianism and appointed people throughout Korea to government positions. Neglecting social rank, Korean citizens from small origins were promoted to office becoming a new revolutionary principle in Korea. Before 1418CE, most political positions were given to aristocratic families; the possibility of commoners running government offices was unheard of at the time in Korea. In addition to Confucianism becoming the norm for government events, Sejong encouraged people to behave according to Confucianism. Behaving according to Confucianism created new social conventions governing social interaction and duty. Buddhism was initially discouraged, but later Sejong allowed Buddhism and built many temples and tested to become a monk. Foreign relations with Korea's neighbors flourished under his reign.

     Relations with China and Japan prospered under Sejong leading to a military expedition force in 1419CE to Tsushima Island to stop pirating along the Coast. An Infamous island and pirate stronghold, Tsushima Island pirates' operations diminished as Sejong campaigned for control. The Treaty of Gyehae was created between the Tsushima Daimyo and Korea, but the document was not signed until 1443CE with the Tsushima Daimyo paying tribute to Korea. Improvement in cannon technology, gunpowder, and new forms of arrows developed the Korean military into a more powerful force. Despite military technological advancement, Sejong furthered general technological advancement for his citizenry.

     Sejong's Nongsa Jikseol, or The Farmer's Handbook, was created to help farmers with different planting techniques and farming. Despite other court officials, Jang, a Korean inventor, became favored by the King and gained patronage for his inventions. One of the most significant inventions was the rain gauge in 1442CE.The Korean calendar was further developed from the Chinese system during this period; further improvements in medicine were made as well during Sejong's reign. Hangul, or the native phonetic language of Korea, developed to serve the people of Korea despite the Chinese language serving as the language of the court. The new language system made for Korean citizens gave rise to a boom in literature as well as literacy. People outside the court no longer relied on learning the Chinese language.

     Korea, before Sejong, was a kingdom of little improvement and autonomy. Sejong was the force of change that brought Korea to being a respectable nation in the eyes of its neighbors. Korea successfully developed its own distinguishing language as well as a powerful military to protect its newfound autonomy. Scientific advancements furthered the country's prestige. Sejong is one of the two Kings in history to achieve the title of "Great" in Korea.  

[maverickniner]

Slice of History: Gojira and the Japanese Defeat

     Japan, after the bomb, became a different landscape than before when the country mobilized for war upon the Allies. The imperialistic and the nationalistic culture of Japan became a characteristic of the past as Japan learned to accept defeat. In the wake of newfound peace, the Japanese culture adjusted accordingly to the new landscape and the survivors of the war. Japanese soldiers and civilians learned to cope with a physically and mentally devastated Japan. In the wake of this development, the bomb became a reminder to Japanese people of what aggression results in; cultural forces would come to adapt this into Japan's iconic masterpiece, Gojira. Gojira would grow to symbolize the new emerging Japan.

     Upon defeat, Japan’s constitution was discarded and replaced with one written by the Allied Forces. The new constitution forbids the Japanese government from building up an expansive military force as previously. However, the true defeat was felt at the heart of the Japanese people. Both Hiroshima and Nagasaki left everlasting reminders of their defeat; these two cities foundations were demolished into rubble. Over 135,000 people died from both atomic bombs, not including the radioactive fallout that killed several hundred civilians after the initial explosion and affected Japanese birth rates for years. Japan, by 1954, was still in recovery; Toho Studios’ producer, Tomoyuki Tanaka, began production of a film building off Japan's feelings of defeat and recovery titled, Gojira. Tanaka received influence from other movies of the period including, The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms (1953) and King Kong (1933).  Many viewers do not understand that Gojira was a symbol of the atomic bomb and the consciousness of the Japanese people of the time period. According to Peter H. Brothers', “Japan’s Nuclear Nightmare,” Godzilla (Gojira) is a film less about a giant dinosaur running amuck and more about the psychological recovery…” Japanese citizens in the 1950s were still coping with their humiliation, their fear, and their defeat. They were still trying to rebuild their cities and their lives that were threatened by radioactive fallout. Tanaka saw an opportunity to create a monster that matched Japan's mood while also making a profit.

     The initial movie was to be more of a tribute to the movie, King Kong (1933). However, when the assignment went to director Ishirô Honda, he was determined to make the monster more of a metaphor of the moods of the people. People believed that they were living on the edge of doom due to their participation with the atomic bomb. Just as Americans feared nuclear war, the Japanese people feared the further use of atomic weaponry. Honda put his experiences into the film as well; being a soldier and survivor, Honda knew the feelings of the people as well as their fears of the future. While writing the script, Honda and Tanaka became interested in the basic usage of atomic testing and changed their original monster from an octopus to a dinosaur creature. According to Kerry Brougher’s, “Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,” “Honda would later say that the idea was to have the monster represent the atomic bomb, to make ‘radiation visible.’” Gojira was birthed through atomic radiation making the "radiation visible." Gojira was to be the atomic bomb, not just a monster; his destruction of the city reflects the destruction experienced by the Japanese. Additionally, the fear demonstrated by the people running away from Gojira in the film served as a metaphor of the fear and unease experienced after the war.  More importantly, Gojira represents the potential for annihilation during the Atomic Age. The monster's roar was made to sound like an air raid siren due to Honda insisting; viewers who recognized the sound understood that destruction was to follow. Air raids were common in Japan during World War II; the fire-bombing of Tokyo still haunted people's minds.

     On March 9, 1945, American B-29s' fire-bombed Tokyo destroying over 250,000 homes and leaving millions homeless and 100,000 dead. This event matches the scene prominent in Gojira films; fire engulfs the city as Gojira goes on a rampage. The fact that Gojira spits fire could be interpreted as symbolic of the fire-bombing and destruction caused by the B-29s.  When Japan is facing America alone after Germany and Italy surrendered, Japan is also facing Gojira alone while no other countries offer or give aid. When Gojira is defeated, the hospitals are overflowing with patients similar to the reality of the war after Japan surrendered. Countless scenes in Gojira are similar to scenes Japan faced during and after the war. Honda and Tanaka did not construct this film to match reality by mistake. However, Honda’s scenes are far less terrible than reality; he did not want to horrify his audience. Honda illustrated the suffering of the individuals; he did not want his audience to be disgusted or repulsed. He wanted them to focus on the internal suffering of the characters. One such character that Honda made to embody suffering is the scientist of the film. His scars are toned down so the character did not repulse the audience away while his suffering caused by the “monster” is apparent to the audience.  In addition to symbolizing the fear of the people after the war and the destruction occurred during the war, the film also presents anti-American views.

     The fact remains that the destruction of the cities and the radiation fallout in Japan was caused by Americans dropping atomic bombs and firebombs. Gojira representing these weapons of destruction and the people who dropped them. However, it did not stop the film from being released in the United States two years later.  

     Gojira, created by Tanaka and Honda, came to reflect Japan during the 1950s and their recovery from the nuclear bombs and destruction. As the citizens felt hopeless and afraid in reality so do the citizens in Gojira. The city’s destruction is the reality that many homeless people faced in Tokyo. The recovery after Gojira’s attack is the same as Japan's recovery after the war with many patients in hospitals. While the movie, King Kong (1934) deals with drama, Gojira deals with issues that are present and important to Japanese society and to Japanese History. 

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Sources:

Ibid; Kerry Brougher, “Art and Nuclear Culture.” Bulletin of The Atomic Scientist        69, no.6 (November 2013): 11-18.

Peter H. Brothers, “Japan’s Nuclear Nightmare: How the Bomb Became as              Beast Called Godzilla.” Cineaste 36, no.3 (Summer2011): 36-40.

[maverickniner]

Book Review: John Allyn’s The 47 Ronin

     Books tend to convey ideas, philosophies, but rarely a glimpse into a culture and a way of life. The 47 Ronin, retold by John Allyn, is an amazing piece of fiction and non-fiction that gives outsiders a look into 18th century Japan. Allyn delivers the Japanese cult legend to the reader without many issues.

     Storytelling is an artform and essential as one of the best aspects of the book; readers with no formal knowledge will understand the story very well, but may dislike the pace. Like any drama, the book builds on its suspense but includes many twists and turns as well as expected in Historical Japanese Fiction. American readers may not be used to the aspects of Japanese drama storytelling as it relates to their culture. Taking place across two years in the 18th century, Kira, servant to the court, insults Lord Asano and his wife. After bearing the insult, Asano violates the Shogun's orders and strikes at Kira in the court resulting in being put to death by seppuku and seizure of his land. Oishi, retainer to Lord Asano, with other Asano Samurai become ronin, or samurai without a lord, and lose their places in society as Asano's property is seized. Left penniless, jobless, and without honor, Oishi and the other samurai begin plotting revenge for their lord. To regain their honor and to deliver justice to their Lord, Oishi and the other ronin samurai plan to kill the man responsible for the injustices visited upon their clan. After beheading Kira, they face the same punishment as their Lord Asano. The narrative presented in the book is similar to the tales in Japan and stays true to their origin, unlike other retellings. The names of the characters match historical records in addition to several of the events coinciding in agreement with modern Japanese historians. The books conclusion is very accurate giving readers the cemetery where the ronin samurai are buried next to their Lord. Providing multiple angles to the conflict gives this particular retelling an edge to the story. Due to the inclusion of commentary and different clans' viewpoints, readers can adequately decide for themselves if the ronin were justified or committing a crime against the empire. Allyn's use of plot structure and storytelling works for readers without a background in Japanese History and culture; however, it can be misleading and sometimes annoying to readers who possess that knowledge.

     Terms, used in any work of writing, are important depending on the material; the terms used in this version of The 47 Ronin can be detrimental. Although meant for a broad audience, the samurais in The 47 Ronin would never carry a dirk. Dirks are of European invention; the tanto blade is the proper term for the short sword carried by samurais. The term castle is also used to describe the homes of the lords within the story; while there were castles built in Japan, the lords never owned castles. Only the Shogun stayed in a fortress that could be called a castle. These are minor problems but can lead readers astray from the true tale and the true Japan. Despite the misuse of terms, the wording is easy to understand and flows so the reader is never burdened. In addition, the grammar and the syntax are also handled very well contributing to the flow of the book. The author's true skills show throughout the novel due to his use of paragraph structure.

     Paragraphs are structured with an average of six to eight lines per paragraph contributing to the pace and flow. As a result, the structure gets the reader to continue reading without any hard stops. Chapters are kept at a very reasonable length to also provide stopping points for those readers without time. Years are also clarified to remind the reader when a story event is taking place. Sentence structure proves to be easy without complicated wording with only the name pronunciations posing a problem. The structure does allow for quick reading making the book seem short. However, sources seem to be lacking a little.

     Sources are not necessarily highly important in a work of fiction, but this book does not stray from history non-fictional. Sources are desired with historical and non-fictional subject matter. Readers just have to take Allyn on his word or do the research themselves. Some of the minor mistakes may have been avoided if sources were taken into consideration. Despite the lack of display of sources, Allyn's 47 Ronin is a very good retelling of a classic legend and delivers in the overall presentation.

     Average readers may not know extensive Japanese History nor the samurai that shaped the Japanese landscape. Many readers may not even care to go through the process of looking up the history. Despite the lack of knowledge, Allyn makes sure that the readers fully understand these warriors. Scholars may not like the retelling as much as the general audience, but Allyn's version still provides a very good read due to its ease and shortness. Much of the story agrees with history and can be read quickly or referred to quickly due to the layout and structure. Since this reviewer is a reader as well, this book is recommended for those readers wanting to know and understand more about Japan or for those readers wanting to read good drama. Overall, The 47 Ronin, by John Allyn, is a very good retelling of the story for a modern western audience.

Source: Allyn, John. The 47 Ronin. Rutland, Vermont: Tuttle Publishing, 1970.

[maverickniner]

Slice of History: Samurais’ Cultural and Societal Role from 1600s to 1900s.

     Samurais, the knights of feudal Japan, arose similar to the knights of Europe, but diverged as the societies they were associated with centralized. Samurais had a significant cultural and societal role from the 1600s through the Meiji Restoration. From their rise to their fall as traditional warriors, samurais continued through politics and businesses in Meiji Japan. Culture and society were shaped by their presence as a source of authority and as their role as warriors. 

     Samurais rose in status from the 1500s to become a very powerful social class in Feudal Japan. Nobunaga, a warlord, started the beginnings of the Sengoku Period. During this period, war raged from the 1500s to the 1600s between lords for and against Nobunaga. Samurais, being the warriors of the society, were needed and highly honored as a result. This period marked the beginning of samurais acquiring more rights than they previously held in the Muromachi Period. During the 1600s, the samurai achieved an almost totalitarianism position and social role while the peasants were left as sheep. Peasants, including farmers, merchants, and artisans were below the social hierarchy of the samurai. As a result, samurais had control over the lives of most of the people below them. The punishment of death was possible and swift to peasants who did not bow to them as they rode or walked by; any of the citizens below them who dishonored the samurai or the samurai’s lord was often executed. Commoners, such as artisans and merchants catered to samurais upon the death of Nobunaga and the rise of Lord Hideyoshi. However, it must be understood that samurais were forbidden in such establishments and were seen as dishonoring their lord by attending entertainment houses such as geisha establishments. Not that samurais avoided such places, especially when society began to enter a peaceful era, but the samurai who valued honor stayed away from such entertainment. Lord Hideyoshi, who ruled after Nobunaga, furthered the rights and social role of the samurai up to the 1600s until The Tokugawa Period.The Tokugawa Period marked the transition of the samurai from a totalitarianism-warrior role into a more business and civil servant role. 

     Tokugawa Ieyasu started his reign as shogun in the 1600s; Japan, coming out of the Sengoku Period, entered an era of peace and prosperity. However, prosperity only belonged to the privileged. Samurai during this period served as police to the Shogunate and as escorts to local lords. Many of them, seasoned from war, grew restless and unhappy with their new social role. However, samurais still held up their social duty; many samurais still treated peasants as under them and could execute them if they transgressed their social class. However, their cultural role expanded to become the ideal type of man for businesses as well as other leadership roles. Many entered businesses, mostly as merchants, while some became ronin and entered into entertainment houses slowly fading away as warriors. During this time period, peasants began training in martial arts and other previous activities restricted to samurai only. Some samurais became teachers to make a living. The 1700s to the Meiji Restoration Era marked the end of the warrior and the transition to leadership roles; samurais gave up their swords and entered politics as houses of power. Peasants were equal and no longer needed to bow to samurais as they passed; swords were illegalized with the rise of the Meiji Emperor bringing Japan into modernity. However, the samurais still held major power as officials behind the Emperor. Many of them decided how the government operated with the Emperor being the figurehead for the new industrializing Japan.

     Modern readers may see the many similarities that exist between the samurai class and the medieval knights of Europe. However, the samurai had knowledge, knew how to read and write, and was trained in Confucianism later as well as the art of war. Many entered into the public sphere, unlike European knights, and continued to live as samurais with a different societal role. Instead of totalitarian warriors, samurais continued as public servants.  

[maverickniner]

Marketing Needs Historians and Cultural Experts

     Arrival, the movie, directed by Denis Villeneuve, stirred up a heated debate between two cultures influential to the movie’s success. However, this being old news, there is no discussion on the importance of correcting this problem in the American media and our relations with other cultures. 

     American PR firms and relation specialists are not all that is needed for a product's success in foreign countries. Understanding the people and exhibiting that in the product no matter how small shows intelligence. More importantly, the success of the product is dependent upon this understanding; infuriating more than half of your patrons who go to the theater can kill a film in today’s market. Hollywood has changed over the past decade as well as its viewers. China and other Asian provinces contribute to more than half the revenue; World of Warcraft, if reliant upon the American audience, would have failed, but the Chinese market contributed to its major success globally. April 2015 marked the first time that China beat the US, “bringing in 650 million at box office vs the US bringing in 640 million” (Coonan). China is expected to keep erecting more theaters while the US is expected to shut more down due to poor ticket sales. Blundering a film’s or any media product’s marketing in these regions or any foreign regions can be more harmful as of 2016. 

     Markets in the US need to diversify with multicultural and trained experts to be able to survive in today’s global economy. Media is transmitted to vastly different regions than America. Using Arrival as an example, the movie is original and looks to be a good example of science fiction storytelling. However, its marketing has ultimately already impacted its sales. Being a movie about the basic understanding of an alien species, it is ironic that the film has caused tensions for its Hong Kong release. Depicting Shanghai’s Oriental Pearl Tower in Victoria’s Bay Hong Kong has outraged the citizens of Hong Kong to call for a boycott of the film. This blunder has also demonstrated the escalating tensions between the People’s Republic of China and Hong Kong. Simple misunderstandings can impact a product’s sales abroad. American ethnocentrism is a problem exhibited in Hollywood as well as other American marketing campaigns. No matter how big the blunder, experts do exist that understand these individual cultural markets. Historians and other related degree paths focus on these exact circumstances. 

     World History provides a great understanding of world cultures and tends to eliminate the possibilities of ethnocentrism. While the courses focus on a broad historical spectrum, certain focuses on parts of different cultures can help marketing of media as well as products in different parts of the world. In addition to marketing in such places as Hong Kong and China, marketing in America is also becoming extremely diverse. Cultures all have views and traditions different and similar to each other, marketing as well as PR interaction with these cultures can be successful only through understanding. Historians, as well as any cultural experts, could easily inform marketers and designers including cultural landmarks in promotions that may offend the people being marketed to. Arrival could have benefited from such experts in its marketing.

     With the Increasing diversity of America and foreign markets, the inclusion of Historians and other cultural related study experts would benefit any international business. Arrival is the first of many blunders to come from businesses not willing to adjust and hire a degree field full of resources. American marketing has to adjust to survive and eliminate ethnocentrism. 

Link to Image of Arrival, Hong Kong, Poster. Plus good article to read. http://mashable.com/2016/08/22/arrival-movie-poster-blunder/#x9Bx4V8wwOq1

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Sources:

Coonan, Clifford. “China Monthly Box Office Tops U.S. for First Time Ever.”              TheHollywoodReporter. Hollywood Reporter. 03/22/2015. Web. 08/28/2016.

[maverickniner]

No Man’s Sky (PS4): Review/Comments/Opinion

     Recently, having played No Man’s Sky, I began to wonder about the world and why certain things are the way they are. Games rarely make us, me especially, think about the universe and our place in it. No Man’s Sky, in its defense, is a very good game and designed exceptionally well considering its scope. 

     The games graphics are up to par with modern graphics, not the best, but graphics do not make a good game. The sheer design and scope of the game is impressive, containing billions of possibilities it seems for the galaxies, planets, systems, and right down to the flora and fauna. This game gives homage to the classic 80′s SciFi that I personally love and so do many true purists of SciFi. Within the game, there are three ways to progress (that I have discovered/noticed so far) and continue to the end goal of getting to the center of the galaxy. The player can progress by free roaming, doing as he/she wills, the player can choose to fallow the path to the center of the galaxy directly, or the player may allow Atlas to guide them into the unknown. Atlas is a mysterious entity or intelligence that the player knows very little about early int he game. Atlas seems to be a homage to 2001 Space Odyssey’s, HAL. The game takes a positive attitude toward the idea of aliens, trade, and exploring similar to SciFi from the 60s to 80s. 

     The whole point of the game is to explore, cataloging, and manage resources to get to the center of the galaxy. The story can be learned from aliens races in game and through objects called monoliths/plaques. It has limited online interactivity which this reviewer loves. Too many titles have multiplayer as a focus leading to a bunch of negative interaction that all of us can just get in the real world. Many people believed the game to have much more “online interactivity” leading to negative receptions. However, Sean Murray, the creator, never stated the game would be online to the point as a MMO or PvP situations such as CoD. No Man’s Sky is Sean’s baby allowing all of us, who love the old SciFi and old roguelike games developed early in the pc’s lifecycle. to live out our dreams. He stated this fact in many interviews over and over. The game is exactly as he said and envisioned; however, marketing may have lead to different expectations. Everyone has a right to their opinion, but do not bash something delivered just as promised by the creator. Especially when the game is functioning on the intended console of release with rarely any problems unlike other games that are released broken and given a way better reception. 

     No Man’s Sky is a game for those people who love roguelike games and classic SciFi. The game presents a peaceful and enjoyable atmosphere that lets players become whoever they want in a vast and infinite universe. I have spent hours trading to become a magnate while owning a 16 million credit ship and now traveling to the center of the universe and exploring. This game lets that child that once dreamt of space, exploring, and meeting different sentient life experience it finally. Having said that, a warning to those who like modern SciFi which I find to be pessimistic and full of military and war, do not get the game. You probably will not like it unless you like Minecraft or other relaxing casual games. In addition, No Man’s Sky does not tell the player what to do or command the player, it is up to the player to decide and push forward making their own story. If you are a player that prefers to be told what to do or guided then you should probably stay away. 

     I give No Man’s Sky a 9/10.

[maverickniner]

The Parallel Between John Carpenter’s, “Escape from L.A.” and Donald Trump

     Released in 1996, John Carpenter’s, “Escape from L.A.” is a classic work of hardcore 80′s action sequences with an idea of the future America may choose. Kurt Russell returns as ex-soldier Snake Plissken. Once considered a solider of moral and character representing the best the US had to offer, now Snake serves as a freedom fighter to those considered immoral and evil. It being 2016, many people may see the premise of the movie as outlandish but we are not far past 2013.

     In the year 2013, the US is rocked by a major disastrous earthquake that rips apart California leaving leaving LA as an island. Being an island, no one can leave due to the military police instituted by the President played by Cliff Robertson. In an effort to make the country “great again,” the President purges the country of the people who disagree with his extreme conservative views including the immoral and “non-patriotic Americans.” The President’s daughter eventually freely escapes to LA with a kill device that threatens the President’s power and truly the whole world. The President plan on laying waste to LA gets put on hold as a result. Now he must send in the hero, Snake, to retrieve the device. The simple synopsis of the movie may remind many of us of the political turmoil we now find ourselves in and specifically of one person. 

     Removing Snake from the picture, we are left with a movie about a tyrannical president trying to make America supreme/great and his twisted views about the diversity which makes us already great. Trump is famous for his “wall” he is going to build to keep out foreigners, we might be able to call it the great wall of America (humor). This parallels with LA in the film; large amounts of the people being sent to LA consist of non-white Americans/foreigners. Namely the largest amount of people seen deported to LA consist of Latinos. In addition to Latinos, many Asians are seen to control parts of LA in the form of gangs. Trump is well known for is  racial and prejudice remarks on Twitter or TV. What makes the whole movie a weird parallel is really the diversity of people found; many of those found in LA are non-white and non-christian. These people have similarly been targeted in Trumps campaign speeches. Despite the huge uproar Trump has caused about Latinos in America, he has also targeted another demographic. Asians are seen the same way within the film as Trump speaks about them in his speeches while specifically targeting Chinese Americans. Religion is also a cause to be deported to LA according to the film’s President. The character, Taslima, is a woman deported due to her being Muslim. All people not christian are deported to die in LA. 

     Trump has almost taken the same view on those sharing the Islamic faith here in America and abroad. Through his speeches and comments, Trump has more than thoroughly explained his “plan” to deal with the Islamic faith. From exile to intern-camps, the future Trump wants to give Muslims is not so different than the future of those in John Carpenter’s, LA. Despite the views on religions and race in the movie, the President also has harsh treatments such as electroshock confessions. Now, this may have never been stated by Trump, but it is not hard to imagine that he would support such a punishment in the name of making America “great” again. Near the end of the movie, the audience realizes the true devastation that the weapon, that Plissken is sent to retrieve, may cause to the world and to the enemies of the President. The President, thinking he has the real device, makes a broadcast to the world and a live demonstration of the weapon to one of his enemies. However, the demonstration goes wrong revealing that Plissken retained the real device of massive destruction. 

     The general attitude of the President is similar to Trump’s discussions about the military and the use of power. The US Military is one of the strongest and most well funded organizations abroad. Funds directly go to weapon and technology development. Having an EMP, electromagnetic pulse, weapon similar to the one in, “Escape from L.A.,” is not far fetched considering the US Military’s capabilities. Trump has indirectly stated he would make America the center of control and all others subservient; this message was directly stated in the film. Trump’s open speeches laying blame on China for America’s fall relate to his other messages of use of power and regaining what we supposedly lost. Instead of targeting a third-world country as the President does in the film, Trump wants to target China. 

     Trump, who has been quoted to have been watching a lot of TV, must have seen John Carpenter’s, “Escape from L.A.,” and taken some notes. The views and ideas expressed by him and his campaign are frighteningly similar to those of the President from the film. Do we really need America becoming what it is in, “Escape from L.A.?” America is great due to its diversity, it makes us strong and gives us a greater place to live. The freedoms we commonly enjoy would quickly recede as featured in Snake Plissken’s, America.