Cognitive World: A Focus on Online Classes

A blog centered around cognition and issues related to it, with a special focus on online learning. A modern place for modern sources related to our focus.

[acognitiveworld]

Online learning can be a lifeline to those who have obstacles, such as geographical distances or physical disabilities.

Paul Levinson

[acognitiveworld]

A Proposed Intervention Plan for Filipino College Students attending Online Classes concerning Issues in Cognition, Attention, and Perception - A Research Paper and Intervention Proposal - References

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[acognitiveworld]

A Proposed Intervention Plan for Filipino College Students attending Online Classes concerning Issues in Cognition, Attention, and Perception - A Research Paper and Intervention Proposal - Intervention Plan Proposal

Target Group

This intervention plan is intended mainly for students in higher education, specifically those in college. However, this also attempts to account for assistance to be rendered toward college professors, as they are the main partners to students in the setting of online classes. It focuses directly on delivering a proposed intervention plan for all college professors currently working online to teach college students of all year levels. Other persons involved are school administrators, educational researchers, and other faculty necessary to the training, supervision, support, and sustained connection between the students and their professors. This includes proposed solutions aimed at encouraging the participation of the households in which students may live within and the involvement of experts and professionals specializing in online education or blended education or other alternative educational approaches that are related to the matter of online education. It is important that the plan includes experienced students, professors, and other involved persons as they will be necessary to a significant number of solutions included in the plan. 

The plan has established expectations that this will benefit the students and all other persons included. However, while the plan expects that students will be able to continue their studies with lesser negative influence from the harm caused by impaired cognition, maintain and improve their ability to pay attention, maintain and improve their perception, adapt to a new type of education, and reorganize themselves to a new way of life during the COVID-19 pandemic, it expects also that significantly negative consequences are likely to occur. 

That is, professors may not be friendly or willing to adapt to the proposed solutions this plan has produced. Students may also be unwilling or unable to proceed with what the plan expects of them. Experts who are expected to be involved may also be unable or unwilling to assist due to various reasons. Educational researchers may not consider this plan to be beneficial to all parties due to the demands of time made by the plan as well as the demands placed on all other involved persons. Administrators may also raise concerns about cost or other issues with the implementation or even testing of any solution included in the plan. The plan may also require households or students themselves, not excluding professors and other related faculty, to consider additional costs or responsibilities. And it may also cause some significant changes that are unwanted to the systems necessary for the students and professors and other persons involved.

Components of Proposed Intervention

Feifer (2020) stated in an article that he created that “people don’t like being told what to do.” He also mentioned the concept of “reactance”. And as mentioned in a study by Steindl et al. (2015) Reactance is the desire to reclaim liberty after it has been lost or threatened. It drives individuals to attempt resistance against the influence of other people. And sometimes because of this, one way people act against others is to do the opposite of what they were influenced to do or to avoid doing them in any other way possible. This is also one reason why this adds to the difficulty of assisting students who are attending online courses in the Philippines.

However, this is not the only reason why this adds to the difficulty of the students. As discussed earlier in the paper, other reasons were examined for later consideration for resolution in this plan. The components of this proposed intervention plan are as follows:

The continued analysis of problems, issues, and concerns of students mainly and thoroughly by educational researchers and other persons involved for the express purpose of determining if there are more cognitive issues which were not yet explored by previous studies. This also calls for a highly systematic review of all related literature and works conducted by researchers and other experts in the previous years firstly on the issues and problems previously encountered so that it may contribute to the effectiveness of the analysis. This component should then produce a fairly large dataset for interpretation and further examination until a much larger and extensive review is ultimately constructed. It is possible that this component may take a significant amount of time, possibly taking at least more than a year of additional study while the other components of the plan are implemented.

The re-orientation and re-adjustment of students from traditional instruction to digital instruction or other alternatives like blended learning. This is a program that details the construction and implementation of a user-friendly tutorial for students concerning what software they will be using, what websites they shall be offered for use whenever they must go online, and what other things they can do to easily manipulate and understand what they are doing to continue learning online as well as they learned offline. However, this program also demands that students overcome their worries concerning online education or the alternatives related to it through their participation in this program, which includes conferences which are aimed at deconstructing as much of their worries and reassuring them that they can and will adapt, adjust, and orient themselves to this new method of learning. Unfamiliarity and hostility, as well as skepticism, toward online classes will be acted upon by "seasoned" students and professors who have already spent a significant amount of time and experience with online classes or the alternatives. This should occur as early as possible after students enroll for online classes or the alternatives. And this component should also consider the provision of necessary software, other applications, and hardware demanded by students for their continued involvement in their studies, especially computers and stable internet.

The reconstruction of routines and the restabilization of a setting for learning with minimum disturbances for the students is an important component that details the urgent and rapid establishment of classrooms. This component demands administrators, professors, and other persons involved to spend a significant amount of time, supplies, and other necessities on ensuring students are able to transition to this new type of learning through encouraging them to maintain or reconsider their traditional practices as students; that is, for example, they must act like they are preparing to attend school. This part of the plan is dependent, mainly, on the students as they are required to not only set aside a part of their living space strictly for learning and attending their classes but also to ensure that their daily routine is exactly, if not almost exactly, like their routine before they transitioned to online classes or the alternatives. This should result in the students being able to feel motivated, think they really are going to school despite only having to simply come online or fetch modules from their respective campuses.

The implementation of mandatory rest periods and the consideration for more flexible goals and deadlines. This component is produced at a larger scale as it demands that the educational system be reformed to allow more time to be spent per educational year for the express purpose of easing the stress on both students and their professors and for the more proper performance of others involved in the plan. Basically, this details the necessity of students to take more breaks regularly on school days, to have uninterrupted rest days when they are not attending classes according to their schedules, and to have more freedom to address more important concerns in the household or else go beyond the boundaries of school. Professors also will have to adjust so students will be able to meet deadlines with lesser penalties for tardiness. Professors also will have to be more flexible in the setting of goals, and so will students, and both groups will have to coordinate with each other regarding the accomplishment or postponement of these goals. Administrators are also encouraged to consider reforming their own systems so that this component may be implemented properly. This also may encourage educational researchers to invest significant resources into studying this type of change. Additionally, this should also allow other experts and persons involved to more thoroughly establish the necessary infrastructure and communication networks for students to utilize for their benefit mainly. This can take a significant amount of time to accomplish but this should allow all involved to experience less stress and fewer issues regarding their cognitive performances.

The reformation of curriculums and other educational workloads for both students and professors. This details the removal of unnecessary subjects, the retraining of professors, the reduction of lecture and presentation times, the reduced significance of exams, the removal or readjustment of homework, the strategic adjustment to the schedules of projects, the reconsideration of collaborative tasks, and the utilization of written reflections and other written tasks as well as the reduced utilization of quizzes. A strictly and highly uniform code of conduct should be established for professors and students, just as a more flexible readjustment of school systems for a more practical opportunity for students to learn at their own pace without too many consequences set against them. Professors should also learn to utilize video recordings over synchronized lectures and presentations. A stronger emphasis on more individualized projects is to be considered to discourage the costs of directing students to invest their time and effort in more wasteful and difficult group work. This component of the plan should take at least under a year to plan and implement reforms within schools.

The utilization of workshops conducted by "seasoned" professors and students as well as by more experienced experts of online education and its alternatives for the express purpose of training novice students and professors. This component is a necessity as it demands those new to online education and its alternatives to learn from their more experienced peers. This should contribute to the ease of retraining and readjustment not only of students but also of professors and other persons involved. This component also demands that a careful consideration of lessons from other schools and educational systems and institutions that experienced online education and its alternatives be included in the workshops and in the large necessity for schools in the country to not only better prepare for the transition to online education or its alternatives but to reinforce whatever existing infrastructure is in place.

The creation of joint assemblies of professors with experts in online education, its alternatives, and the necessary equipment utilized in such fields. These assemblies, especially interdisciplinary conferences and cross-educational seminars, are important to the resolution of any gaps between professionals in education and professionals in other fields. This also encourages the coordination of experts, the improvement of learning resources and equipment, the better development of software necessary to education, and the stimulation of new research in the context of newer learning methods.

The encouragement of more open learning through a wider access to scientific and educational materials online and the discouraging of cheating and plagiarism through the reformation of databases, journals, and other networks frequently used by schools, students, and faculty. 

Ultimately, this intervention plan not only proposes significant reforms and resolutions on a large scale but also proposes moderately sized or small scale changes for students, professors, and others involved. This intervention plan aims to address any and all possible aspects which surround students or concern them, directly or indirectly. And it also aims to prepare for whatever necessary actions are to be explored further in the fields of education and cognitive psychology. 

[acognitiveworld]

A Proposed Intervention Plan for Filipino College Students attending Online Classes concerning Issues in Cognition, Attention, and Perception - A Research Paper and Intervention Proposal - Review of Related Literature

Framework and Summary

Since college students of today find it hard to acknowledge how flexible learning works and to survive, it seems more likely that they’re stuck on the problem or the initial state of being. The initial state is the occurrence of a certain problem with several conditions (Waldrop, 1988; Jones, 2002). Therefore, college students who are currently enrolled and are having difficulties in managing themselves due to the stress of online classes are an example of an initial state. Allan Newel and Huber A. Simon used the term initial state, intermediate state, and goal state to emphasize how problems are solved with the use of their approach (Newell & Simon, 1972). The Newell-Simon approach stressed that they must look deeply into the problem. In this case, college students must be mindful of the conditions of the problem (Ohlsson, 2012; Dunbar, 1998); they have to pass through the initial state in the pursuit of the goal state. So what are these conditions? The majority of students have a short attention span (Bradbury, 2016), some students have memory-encoding deficits (Mirandola et al., 2011; Zhang, 2017), and college students perceive online classes as difficult (Nambiar, 2020; Fish & Snodgrass, 2020), and to name a few. These problems require immediate resolutions which are obtained in the goal state. The Newell-Simon Approach suggests coming up with various ways of solving the problem, treating it as a sequence of choices; this is the intermediate state (Veale, 2016; Newell & Simon, 1972). If college students are able to transpire unique strategies from mental imagery, attention, memories, perceptions, etc., then perhaps it is possible for the college students to create categorically clustered sub-goals. Afterwards, college students will test those sequences one step at a time; this is means-end analysis. By doing this, the probability of reaching the goal state is possible. College students can opt to use operators to catalyze the use of sub-goals; college students can ask for help with their colleagues, the use of online databases, etc. In conclusion, by using the Newell-Simon Approach, it will be easier for college students to navigate the unfamiliar problem like the implementation of flexible learning and generate a myriad of solutions to solve cognitive function crises.

A more recent study in 2018 (Karkar-Esperat, 2018) suggested otherwise, that students had to deal with being isolated, the lack of experience on the part of the professors, and the lack or loss of motivation to work on their studies. While they did say that they were able to become more flexible as they studied, also mentioning the convenience of online learning as a positive, the study did emphasize early on that technology was going to be a more significant part of the lives of students. Yet, it also said that it would depend on where the students came from, as those that came from poorer backgrounds or from other countries that didn't see an improvement in the use of technology in their educational systems would not likely have a great experience with online classes.

A study by Varao-Sousa (2015) was about students' memory performance and mind wandering, and how  different lecture formats impact one's learning experience. In the study, two lecture formats were tested - a live in-class lecture and a pre-recorded video presentation. The results of the study were that the students' memory performance was significantly higher in the live session compared to the video session. It suggests that the students, concerning their acquisition and retention of the lecture information, benefitted from having the lecture delivered by a professor who was physically present in the classroom, A reason why there was a significantly better memory performance in the live lecture was because it was in an in-person, real world setting, and because the lecture materials were handed to their students physically. Another reason would be the students' interest in the lecture has a direct relationship with their memory performance which was reinforced by being in the very presence of their professor. Another study by Comighud (2020) states that "the extent of students’ perception on factors contributing to memory retention is 'high' in  terms  of  (a)  motivational  practices  and  experiences,  (b)  goal  setting  and accomplishment, and (c) personalized learning. Likewise, it is “very high” in terms of (a)  teaching strategies and learning activities and (b) educational resources and learning devices."

One possible adverse consequence called “cognitive overload” effect was noted (Bawden & Robinson, 2009). This term denotes the mixture of an ever-expanding volume of data to be processed. Because of constant interruptions, multitasking requests, and demanding decisions, people are diverted from their flow of thought. There is also the concept of “information overload” that extends the notion of cognitive overload which is the difficulty of a person to take in information because of a surplus of information.

Exposure to a huge amount of information has broader implications that is also linked to cognitive overload (Bawden & Robinson, 2009). These can negatively affect cognitive processing and decision-making capabilities. According to Mayer and Moreno (2003), cognitive overload refers to a condition when a task's processing demands surpass the brain's ability.

This article looks into research literature as a possible foundation of sources for  college students to use for self-learning. Although this article discussed the 1970s and 1980s, it remains applicable to the present situation. The COVID-19 pandemic has pushed most students into online learning. This system of learning may be considered a good alternative to classroom learning where students and teachers could be exposed to possible infections. Still, there are problems because the lessons are considerably smaller in scope, and the discussions online pale in comparison to in-person classes. Research literature is a good source of cognitive approaches to knowledge. Students can study in their own space and gain additional knowledge which they may not gain from online classes. What is important is that they choose research literature that is related to their course and study thoroughly (Hjørland, 2013).

[acognitiveworld]

A Proposed Intervention Plan for Filipino College Students attending Online Classes concerning Issues in Cognition, Attention, and Perception - A Research Paper and Intervention Proposal - Introduction

Several cognitive factors have different roles that facilitate learning and other important aspects of human function. People pay attention to things that have the potential to improve their knowledge, skills, and abilities. Attention is an active, voluntary mental process that uses gathered information from external cues, adding it up to the vast amount of information retrieved by senses, stored memories, and other neuropsychological processes (Posner et al., 2004; Tomlin & Villa, 1994). It is also used in daily life and greater social functions. Perception allows attention to work better. For example, top-down processing occurs as perceptual behavior, when a person stores information from discrete or unusual events through their consciousness, while bottom-up processing occurs when they expose themselves to different entities that are not familiar to them. Individuals are capable of producing preconceived notions of every stimulus they encounter because, in every situation, they have established prototypes for them (Lakoff, 1999; Geeraerts, 2006). This prototypicality makes it easier for them to process and analyze exemplars due to this type of processing, which is now top-down. Individuals pay attention to something familiar that was stored from their long-term memory; thus, it is no surprise that they identify and describe objects that were kept in their parietal and temporal cortex more rapidly. It also allows them to create egocentric and allocentric representations, causing consideration for spreading activation due to how that specific process primes memories (Crestani, 1997). This augments the ability of individuals to address these things. These serve as their references (Newell & Simon, 1972) for processing information and solving analogical problems for unforeseen circumstances they have not encountered or exemplars that are not the same as prototypes.

Attention and perception are only two out of several factors important to human cognition. Other functions such as mental imagery are some of the most important facets of human life because it assists them in the attenuation of stimulus, especially when there is an abundance of it, so they could perform more important tasks without any unnecessary degradation in their cognition (Pashler, 2016; Ocasio, 2011; Kleinke, 1978; Knoblich et al., 2006; Kosslyn et al., 1995). However, humans cannot use all of these cognitive functions to deal with everything at once. A person cannot be aware of all the factors present in their surroundings. If a person tries to pay attention to all stimuli, they tend to have difficulty processing all the information. In the case of students in college, paying full attention in lectures or classes is not always possible because most students state that it is difficult to pay attention for prolonged periods (Bunce et al., 2010; Lewis & Sugai, 1996). It seems that students in the present are burdened by many responsibilities and factors like household chores, heavy academic requirements, and personal health maintenance. It is more likely that they would suffer from divided attention because of these factors(Miller, 1982; Anderson et al., 1998). It tends to degrade the consistency of their work (Kane & Engle, 2000) and their motivation and attention (Lang, 1995).

Presently, Filipino students have to adjust to digital education due to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic that has seriously affected education in the country. Blended or flexible learning is an alternative educational approach offered by the DepED and CHED as a preferred means of delivering the educational materials and opportunities to Filipino students amidst the pandemic. Blended learning utilizes a number of the same aspects present in traditional face-to-face classes, but the delivery of information between students and their professors is mainly through real-time interaction over the internet or some other connection. Both DepED and CHED underscored that the implementation of this new educational approach would be practical and safe; however, their assertion concerning the alternative approach for learning during this pandemic has little to no data-driven basis (Magsambol, 2020; Lalu, 2020) to support their claims. It then seems that both government bodies have dismissed or disregarded concerns regarding the mental health impact of the implementation of their 'distance' learning on the students (Rajkumar, 2020; Schulte-Körne, 2016; Ong Ki, 2020; Letigio, 2020), possibly adding to their current burdens, impairing their interest in classes, possibly causing a negative influence on their ability to remain or become positive about their education in terms of attaining their needs or securing their future (Gormley et al., 2012; Blair & Hoy, 2012). Without evidence, such as recent and peer-reviewed research, it is difficult for them to support their claims. This could lead to harmful inconsistencies that could affect the attention span of students and cause other cognitive issues to worsen (Leber, 1996; McCoy, 2016; Elam et al., 2007).

Several months have passed after the implementation of online learning. Students still report difficulties in paying attention to their online classes, as well as other issues in thinking. They are significantly affected by this situation because they had to adjust to this new type of learning (Tria, 2020). Therefore, it is important for students to rapidly adapt to these factors while they are participating in online classes. Studying the variety of cognitive issues that have emerged among the students may be vital to exploring how it may differ from the usual set of issues students have as they are engaged in the traditional type of learning.

This paper explores the causes of significant differences in students’ cognitive functions. There is a satisfactory disposition in the paper regarding the situation of the students concerning their issues as classes have shifted online. Cognitive psychological concepts, models, and factors are utilized in the study. It is hypothesized that the students’ issues are certainly related to their attention, perception, and other functions and factors important to their overall cognition. Therefore, there is a significant effect on their cognition. Ultimately, an intervention plan with solutions designed to address the main problem is included. 

Regarding what is already known to the study and what is not yet known, there are limitations which, as a whole, significantly affected the search for related literature and other sources regarding students in higher education who are engaged in online classes. Not all cognitive issues were thoroughly explored in the past, nor were there sufficient studies conducted regarding the influence of online learning on cognition. There is no sufficient knowledge or understanding as of now regarding exact and direct influences on the neurobiological foundations of cognition among students when they are engaged in online learning without the pervasive influence of the pandemic. But what is now known in the study are the influences of technology on the performance of students in classroom settings, the benefits and problems of the Internet for students, and the past studies conducted broadly and mainly on student mental health and cognitive functions or issues in traditional academic settings.

[acognitiveworld]

The Cognitive Issues of College Students Attending Online Classes - A Concept Paper - References

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[acognitiveworld]

The Cognitive Issues of College Students Attending Online Classes - A Concept Paper - Review of Related Literature

Problem-Solving

In these unprecedented times, people find it difficult to cope with the pressure of the problems they face. When individuals face unusual challenges, it seems that they would look for solutions to sooth themselves rather than pay attention to the nature of the problem, thus worsening the situation. Likewise, college students nowadays are encouraged to adjust and quickly learn the necessary skills or abilities to go through online classes. However, the problems that they’re facing with flexible learning right now have no solutions, but college students are trying their best. It’s just that they need effective and efficient measures to overcome their problems. One of the best approaches to solve these phenomena is the Newell-Simon Approach because it is relevant to the situation of college students right now.

Since college students of today find it hard to acknowledge how flexible learning works and to survive, it seems more likely that they’re stuck on the problem or the initial state of being. The initial state is the occurrence of a certain problem with several conditions (Waldrop, 1988; Jones, 2002). Therefore, college students who are currently enrolled and are having difficulties in managing themselves due to the stress of online classes are an example of an initial state. Allan Newel and Huber A. Simon used the term initial state, intermediate state, and goal state to emphasize how problems are solved with the use of their approach (Newell & Simon, 1972). The Newell-Simon approach stressed that they must look deeply into the problem. In this case, college students must be mindful of the conditions of the problem (Ohlsson, 2012; Dunbar, 1998); they have to pass through the initial state in the pursuit of the goal state. So what are these conditions? The majority of students have a short attention span (Bradbury, 2016), some students have memory-encoding deficits (Mirandola et al., 2011; Zhang, 2017), and college students perceive online classes as difficult (Nambiar, 2020; Fish & Snodgrass, 2020), and to name a few. These problems require immediate resolutions which are obtained in the goal state. The Newell-Simon Approach suggests coming up with various ways of solving the problem, treating it as a sequence of choices; this is the intermediate state (Veale, 2016; Newell & Simon, 1972). If college students are able to transpire unique strategies from mental imagery, attention, memories, perceptions, etc., then perhaps it is possible for the college students to create categorically clustered sub-goals. Afterwards, college students will test those sequences one step at a time; this is means-end analysis. By doing this, the probability of reaching the goal state is possible. College students can opt to use operators to catalyze the use of sub-goals; college students can ask for help with their colleagues, the use of online databases, etc. In conclusion, by using the Newell-Simon Approach, it will be easier for college students to navigate the unfamiliar problem like the implementation of flexible learning and generate a myriad of solutions to solve cognitive function crises.

Mental Imagery

The study of mental imagery traditionally suffered criticism due to methodological limitations caused by the inherent private nature of imagery. Recently, however, there are several objective methods of research which have been implemented now, allowing more direct investigation into mental imagery mechanisms and neural substrates. These modern approaches have encouraged numerous new discoveries, resulting in the last few years seeing the rise of a series of highly influential publications (Pearson, 2014). Mental imagery has played a central role in the debate of mental functions, according to Pearson, Naselaris, Holmes et al. (2015). Many have suggested that it is one of the key mental events in humans that allows us to recall, prepare for the future, manage ourselves and others, and make choices. It was also mentioned in the study that in many mental health conditions, mental imagery is crucial to treating them. Also, as stated by Pearson et al. (2015) in their brain imaging study, there seems to be substantial evidence that the activation of the same types of visual functions activated during visual perception results in mental images that are visual in nature. The representations encoded in behavior during perception were specifically modeled by several experiments and then used the model to decipher mental images from brain activity. However, as it was mentioned in the study in the neural representation of visual working memory and mental imagery, brain imaging work has shown to overlap.

Furthermore, in another study by Pearson, (2014) when people imagine one of two patterns, in a subsequent brief binocular-rivalry presentation, that pattern has a much greater probability of becoming perceptually dominant (Pearson et al., 2008; Pearson, Rademaker, & Tong, 2011). Therefore, in binocular rivalry, the content of the mental picture predisposes subsequent dominance, shifting the visual perception of the display of rivalry. In addition, binocular rivalry is a visual effect that happens when two distinct visual stimuli are shown, one to each eye, so that at the same visual location they tend to coexist. One theme appears to be prevailing over the other, dragging it out of consciousness.

Attention and Perception

It's important to, first of all, determine how the students perceive their experiences with online learning. Several studies and reports from various organizations and researchers seem to come to different conclusions. Before the pandemic, a study in 2012 explored how students thought of their online classes, coming to two points; either students felt satisfied with what they went through yet had difficulties adjusting and balancing other responsibilities or they were able to enjoy their experience because it was beneficial to their careers later on. (Blackmon & Major, 2012)

A more recent study in 2018 (Karkar-Esperat, 2018) suggested otherwise, that students had to deal with being isolated, the lack of experience on the part of the professors, and the lack or loss of motivation to work on their studies. While they did say that they were able to become more flexible as they studied, also mentioning the convenience of online learning as a positive, the study did emphasize early on that technology was going to be a more significant part of the lives of students. Yet, it also said that it would depend on where the students came from, as those that came from poorer backgrounds or from other countries that didn't see an improvement in the use of technology in their educational systems would not likely have a great experience with online classes.

A few studies (Rodriguez et al., 2008; Paechter & Maier, 2010) seemed to confirm that despite the advantages offered by improving online learning technology, students seemed to prefer face-to-face classes and other traditional methods of learning. While they appreciate the use of modern technology and media, both studies seem to support the idea that students are more or less in support of actual, in-person learning. 

Looking at the aspect of perception and how it is often accompanied by distractions and attention, it is often usual to consider it with different approaches. Perception can help maintain focus and enhance attention, with consideration for online learning as being complex and exhausting for the learners primarily. In Eastep and Huss, (2013) they emphasized that students in online classes are more concerned with its course organization and design. Students are more concerned about a specific topic and are more particular about instructions because complex materials could create confusion and loss of interest that will lead to degraded attention and perception. This is supported by the study of Deng and Poole (2010) that suggested that web page features, design, order, and visual complexity contribute to the emotional response and behavioral approach of the users positively but also negatively. Though the study needs to carry out more experiments, especially with the use of phones. The manner of the virtual classroom must be considered because it provides a setting for the interest of the students. A study by Lui (2005) revealed that in the digital environment, learners show “screen-based reading behavior” which means that the learner does not really adapt to comprehensive reading and are, therefore, more concentrated on developing their selective reading skills. They aim to be more careful about spotting keywords and scanning only for the most important information. This means that students try adopting different ways to pay attention and to perceive what they must learn compared to the traditional way of dealing with reading in order to learn. This also shows that learners have become more explorative in doing online learning.  This also appears that students' perception could really vary depending on intentions and approaches to the learning materials.

Memory

Learning is an important process in cognition, especially as students aim to learn as much as they can to get through and finally graduate before entering a career. And in learning, memory plays a huge role in attaining new information. Traditionally, teaching was done in a classroom, but because of the pandemic, institutions needed to adapt to the situation and introduced flexible learning systems. With this, technology and the internet has become the medium in which the students are able to learn. 

A study by Varao-Sousa (2015) was about students' memory performance and mind wandering, and how  different lecture formats impact one's learning experience. In the study, two lecture formats were tested - a live in-class lecture and a pre-recorded video presentation. The results of the study were that the students' memory performance was significantly higher in the live session compared to the video session. It suggests that the students, concerning their acquisition and retention of the lecture information, benefitted from having the lecture delivered by a professor who was physically present in the classroom, A reason why there was a significantly better memory performance in the live lecture was because it was in an in-person, real world setting, and because the lecture materials were handed to their students physically. Another reason would be the students' interest in the lecture has a direct relationship with their memory performance which was reinforced by being in the very presence of their professor. Another study by Comighud (2020) states that "the extent of students’ perception on factors contributing to memory retention is 'high' in  terms  of  (a)  motivational  practices  and  experiences,  (b)  goal  setting  and accomplishment, and (c) personalized learning. Likewise, it is “very high” in terms of (a)  teaching strategies and learning activities and (b) educational resources and learning devices."

As established by the related literature, live in-class lectures tend to encourage students to have higher performance, improving their memory, compared to how memory and performance are affected by pre-recorded video presentations. There have been studies that determined students usually have difficulty sustaining attention, suggesting that the longer that a lecture goes on, the more difficult it is for them to keep paying attention to the lecture and to absorb any further information, degrading their memory of what they have learned. (Unsworth, McMillan, Brewer, & Spillers, 2012) But there are ways that lecturers can use to enhance the memory retention of the students when creating pre-recorded video presentations.  Retrieving information from memory can enhance long-term retention of that information. (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006) What this means is that in between lectures or after lectures, an interpolated quiz must be attempted. According to the study by Schacter (2015) "Interpolated quizzing reduced mind wandering, increased task relevant behaviors such as note taking, boosted learning, and also improved calibration between predicted and actual performance."

Organization of Knowledge

  A study by Bolisani, Scarso, & Padova (2018) suggested that social media (SM) is considered important for competitive advantage, especially when college students are using SM (Choudrie & Zamani, 2016; Schlagwein & Hu, 2017).  This can benefit their knowledge management (KM) because of the convenience offered by advanced technologies such as increased communication, better collaboration, enhanced knowledge location and sharing, and faster integration of new employees (Mäntymäki & Riemer, 2016; Weber & Shi, 2017). While the study concentrated on corporate workers, this seems applicable, after modification, to students. 

  KM is slowly changing because of SM (Levy, 2009, 2013; von Krogh, 2012) and this often shifts to traditional models of new views based on user-generated content, collaborative sharing, and real-time multitasking (Razmerita, Kirchner, & Nabeth, 2014).

  Though SM to KM has its advantages and has been generally overlooked because of its negative impacts and limitations, which were widely emphasized, and the potential barriers to its further use and promotion (Mukkamala & Razmerita, 2014; Weber & Shi, 2017). It was observed by researchers in 2015 that there have been prevalent biases regarding the increasing penetration of SM. It has also raised new challenges (Pawlowski et al., 2014).

One possible adverse consequence called “cognitive overload” effect was noted (Bawden & Robinson, 2009). This term denotes the mixture of an ever-expanding volume of data to be processed. Because of constant interruptions, multitasking requests, and demanding decisions, people are diverted from their flow of thought. There is also the concept of “information overload” that extends the notion of cognitive overload which is the difficulty of a person to take in information because of a surplus of information.

Exposure to a huge amount of information has broader implications that is also linked to cognitive overload (Bawden & Robinson, 2009). These can negatively affect cognitive processing and decision-making capabilities. According to Mayer and Moreno (2003), cognitive overload refers to a condition when a task's processing demands surpass the brain's ability.

  In addition to the inadequate ability to interpret knowledge, psychological conditions often affect a person who has to conduct and perform complex tasks, and they also often limit the efficacy of decision making (Bawden & Robinson, 2009; Kirsh, 2000). As Kirsh (2000, p. 20) stated that new technologies broaden the possibilities of interaction, which in turn raises individuals' psychological and cognitive pressures. Researchers in 2016 used the term “fatigue” to indicate the unintended effects regarding the use of SM, as it may cause a subjective and self-evaluated feeling of exhaustion to arise from their use. This phenomenon's subjective existence and perception of it means that its interpretation is solely related to the individual's unique cognitive, psychological, and technological capacities. SM fatigue, as “Social Media users” defined it according to Technopedia in 2011, is the tendency of social media users to withdraw from social media as so many social media sites surround them. After having to pay so much attention and effort to maintain these relations and too many friends and supporters. There are three types of overload effect (Lee et al., 2016): (a) information overload; (b) communication overload; and (c) system feature overload. A decline in individual or collective output and even the abandonment of a specific technology or application in the long run can be the risks brought about by these overload effects.

This article looks into research literature as a possible foundation of sources for  college students to use for self-learning. Although this article discussed the 1970s and 1980s, it remains applicable to the present situation. The COVID-19 pandemic has pushed most students into online learning. This system of learning may be considered a good alternative to classroom learning where students and teachers could be exposed to possible infections. Still, there are problems because the lessons are considerably smaller in scope, and the discussions online pale in comparison to in-person classes. Research literature is a good source of cognitive approaches to knowledge. Students can study in their own space and gain additional knowledge which they may not gain from online classes. What is important is that they choose research literature that is related to their course and study thoroughly (Hjørland, 2013).

[acognitiveworld]

The Cognitive Issues of College Students Attending Online Classes - A Concept Paper - Influence of Perception and Attention

Attention cannot exist without perception. Perception must come with it as they contribute heavily to the cognitive development of people, aiding them in their survival and progress. Both arise from conscious control and direction of mental processes that handle outside stimuli. Perception is important to the person's ability to make sense of their environment while attention focuses on perceived stimuli. Perception also is needed when organizing, interpreting, and experiencing stimuli. Attention, though not entirely dependent on perception.

There are several theories from both factors which are important to understanding how the attention span of students may have problems, especially in the context of online learning. The theories to consider for the study are the attenuation theories of attention and the model of bottom-up and top-down processing. In this case, the attenuation theory works because it is important for students to not only "turn up" their processing of certain stimuli such as, for example, a lecture they are trying to fully understand and absorb for a test later, but also to "turn down" their "attenuator" so they could concentrate and not get distracted by other stimuli such as, for example, noise in the house and outside of it. (2019b) While the attenuation theory may be inferior to the one proposed by Deutsch & Deutsch when addressing selective attention, it is still important to first understand how college students seem to try ignoring other stimuli in order to concentrate on a specific set or fail doing so (PSYNSO, n.d.).

Perceptual processes are those that are perceived through the senses. What a person sees, hears, smells, tastes, or feels (Lumen, n.d). According to Gopalan et al (2019), attentional processes are turned into focused attention, selective attention, and sustained attention. Online learning has a problem with sustaining the attention of students. For example, learning would have to take place in the home of the student where they could feel overly comfortable. They know that their bed is just a few steps away. Their gadgets and other distractions are all within reach. It is a known fact that a student's attention wanders while inside the classroom but more so in online classrooms. Their professor could not see everything that the student was doing. The camera could only see so much. The student would be disoriented by the setup which is completely different from the traditional setup. They couldn't socialize with their classmates whom they probably miss. Sessions are so much shorter than normal. They have questions that couldn’t be answered to his satisfaction. And on and on, this goes, with several things affecting the behavior, perception, attention, and other cognitive aspects of the student.

In online learning, there is a lot of stimuli that gets in the way of the student's concentration. Since they are at home, they could hear a lot of familiar noises that they couldn’t hear in the traditional classroom, and the noise could disturb them. Even the arrival or departure of some relatives or friends could become a factor that disturbs them. Students naturally would want to socialize but due to their online classes, they could not. Their attention needless to say is no longer toward their class but on what is happening in their house. Or they could smell cooking. He could hear neighbors laughing or the sound of water running. So many ordinary things could break his attention and therefore render online learning less effective.

If this example was to be considered when thinking of the knowledge used to explain why this problem exists and if this was to be considered when producing specific processes that describe how they affect the problem, this would be more than enough. The student would not be able to handle too much information and too much stimuli when it surrounds them constantly. They also would be unable to attenuate this much for a thorough and stable interpretation and understanding of what is going on. And when the student is so distracted, their attention and perception would not be able to work together to properly secure what was to be learned. 

Also, such an example would expose one aspect of online classes and cognition which is not always considered carefully. That is, the aspect of having to multi-task instead of mindfully doing certain things in order. In the case of online classes, with such a high volume of stimuli all around, it appears more likely that students are prone to dividing their attention and losing focus on what they are supposed to do. This, in turn, causes more issues for online learning than it does for traditional learning, not just for college students but for other students too (2019a).

According to a work (Hayes et al., 1987) cited by Hjalmarsson (2015), there is a suggestion that perception is an output coming from a person’s senses that exhibit and recognize the happenings especially in the environment. Perception includes cognitive processes such as how one interprets the stimuli and its selection and organization. An article (Bond et al., n.d) entitled “Students’ Perceptions of Statistics: An Exploration of Attitudes, Conceptualizations, and Content Knowledge of Statistics,” reveals that students’ perception towards a specific subject has always something to do with their prior belief and attitude toward it. Motivation, experience, and culture could also be considered factors affecting perception.

Also, online learning is a new mode for both students and teachers, and because of its nature as a new mode, adjustments are always noticeable. Traditionally, most of the activities were done through pen and paper, through books and produced reading materials which are also accompanied by in-person teaching aids and other media. For now, all of those are done through the internet. Giving attention mostly toward just one thing (Gans, 2019) helps a person focus on  the important things about it while not focusing on the others, so that their perception will be more aligned toward making distinctions. Also, the environment has a vital role in influencing every student that is trying to pay attention to what they’re learning. Individuals have a different orientation from what is school and what is home, where perception on different things could be out-of-focus. The spillover from one setting into another could distract students more than not allowing settings to overlap with others.

But despite the problems of online learning, there are opportunities for improvement and chances for the continued study and observation of attention, perception, and how there may or may not be the establishment of a new setting for the creation of new models and theories. 

[acognitiveworld]

The Cognitive Issues of College Students Attending Online Classes - A Concept Paper - Introduction

Several cognitive factors play different roles that facilitate our learning. We pay attention to things that have the potential to improve our knowledge, skills, and abilities. Attention is an active and voluntary mental process that addresses the gathered information from external cues up to the vast information retrieved in our senses, memories, and other neuropsychological processes (Posner et al., 2004; Tomlin & Villa, 1994). It is also used in our daily life and in greater social functions, such as communicating with other people, observing what is happening around us, analyzing the market behavior of consumers, etc. Perception enables attention to work. For example, top-down processing occurs as a perceptual behavior, especially when a person successfully stores information from discrete or unusual events through their consciousness, and bottom-up processing if they expose themselves to different entities that are not quite familiar to them. Individuals are capable of making preconceived notions of every stimulus they encounter because, in every situation, they’ve established prototypes for each stimulus (Lakoff, 1999; Geeraerts, 2006). This prototypicality makes it easier for them to process and analyze exemplars due to top-down processing. Individuals would pay attention to something familiar that was stored from their long-term memory; thus, it is no surprise that they can identify and describe objects that were kept in their parietal and temporal cortex. It also allows them to create egocentric and allocentric representations, thereby spreading activation sets forth due to how memories were primed (Crestani, 1997). This process augments individuals’ insights. These will serve as their references (Newell & Simon, 1972) for making information-processing and analogical problem solving to solve unforeseen circumstances they haven’t encountered or exemplars that aren’t the same as prototypes.

Attention, perception, mental imagery, and other cognitive functions are some of the most important facets of humans because it helps them to attenuate stimulus so they could perform more important tasks (Pashler, 2016; Ocasio, 2011; Kleinke, 1978; Knoblich et al., 2006; Kosslyn et al., 1995). However, humans can’t use all of these cognitive functions to deal with everything at once. A person can’t be aware of all the things that are going on in their surroundings. If a person attempts to pay attention to all stimuli, they tend to have difficulty processing all the information all at once. In the students’ case, paying full attention in the lectures or classes is rare because most students find it hard to pay attention for prolonged periods (Bunce et al., 2010; Lewis & Sugai, 1996). Students nowadays are burdened by many responsibilities like household chores, heavy academic requirements, and personal health maintenance. Because of distractions, it is more likely that they would suffer from divided attention (Miller, 1982; Anderson et al., 1998). It tends to degrade the consistency of their work (Kane & Engle, 2000) and their motivation to keep paying attention (Lang, 1995).

Presently, Filipino students have to adjust to digital education due to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic that has seriously affected education in the country. Blended or flexible learning is an alternative educational approach offered and suggested by the DepED and CHED as a means of delivering the educational materials and opportunities to Filipino students amidst the pandemic in the Philippines. Blended learning uses the same facets as traditional face-to-face classes, but the delivery method is through real-time interaction over the internet or some other connection. DepED and CHED underscored that the implementation of this new educational approach would be practical and safe; however, their assertion concerning the alternative approach for learning during this pandemic has no data-driven basis (Magsambol, 2020; Lalu, 2020) to support their claims. It is no surprise that the dismissal of the Department of Education and the Commission of Higher Education regarding the mental health impact of the implementation of their 'distance' learning on the students (Rajkumar, 2020; Schulte-Körne, 2016; Ong Ki, 2020; Letigio, 2020), possibly adding to their burdens and harming their ability to maintain interest in their classes and to remain positive about their continued education(Gormley et al., 2012; Blair & Hoy, 2012). Without evidence, such as recent and peer-reviewed research, it becomes difficult for them to support their claims. This could lead to harmful inconsistencies that could affect the attention span of students (Leber, 1996; McCoy, 2016; Elam et al., 2007).

Several months have passed after the implementation of online learning. Students still report difficulties in paying attention to their online classes. Students are greatly affected by this situation because they had to adjust to the shortcomings of this new type of learning (Tria, 2020). Therefore, it is burdensome for students to make adjustments while participating in online classes. Studying the attention span of these students would be vital to exploring how it may differ from the usual attention span of students engaged in the traditional type of learning.

The focus is mainly on one problem of the Filipino students’ new normal, wherein it aims to investigate the neural mechanisms of students with regards to attention, perception, memory, and other cognitive functions. Further, the outcome of this research wishes to explore the causes of the discrepancies in students’ cognitive functions.

According to Friedman (2020), everything that is novel and strange needs getting used to. Even new shoes need to be broken into before it becomes comfortable to use them. Online classes are no different from new shoes. In fact they are a lot more uncomfortable than traditional classes, and most students attending online classes approach each session with unease. Why is this so? There are several common problems associated with online classes. Two of the main problems are technical issues and having to adapt to unfamiliar technology. Technical issues, like having a weak signal, is perhaps beyond the capacity of the student to correct. Adapting to new technology may take time but the students can learn without much issue. Other problems may be but are not limited to distractions and time management. Attending classes in one’s own home can be distracting and can give the student the false assurance that he or she can never be late.  The student, for this case, tends to oversleep and is distracted by all the things happening in their home like doors opening and closing, dogs barking, the smell of cooking, etc. The student could also have a problem of staying motivated since there is a lack of in-person interaction. The student becomes shy to ask questions regarding the lesson because class time is made so short. Students miss their teachers and their classmates and even their school. With online classes, the future seems more uncertain. They are not sure of anything anymore and they worry if we will ever get back to the old normal, especially as it seems quite far into the future that they'd get back to traditional classes.

While there are some students who appreciate this new type of learning, and are welcome to the opportunity to use more technology in their studies, it is still important, if not urgent, to study what is really going on with the students, especially those in higher education, when it comes to whatever cognitive processes they are to use to keep up.

[acognitiveworld]

Online Education: From Good To Better To Best?

Online education has been around for a while and perceptions of the quality of online education have lagged behind that of the traditional classroom. But that's suddenly changing with a growing number of examples where online is actually outperforming the classroom.

Here is another interesting article about online education which interested us but sadly did not make it to our papers which are soon to be posted every few hours starting tomorrow.

[acognitiveworld]

Disrupting education: How Coursera and Guild Education are driving adoption of online learning

Disruptors in education are having a moment, bringing employers and academia together to deliver degrees and spread economic opportunity for all. Discussing this and more, Guild Education co-founder and CEO Rachel Carlson and Coursera's chief enterprise officer Leah Belsky join CNBC's Julia Boorstin at the 2020 Disruptor 50 Summit.

It is interesting to us that massive online learning courses are gaining in popularity and in enrollees. Some of our staff are studying a variety of courses themselves in Coursera!

[acognitiveworld]

Students do not learn much just sitting in classes listening to teachers, memorizing prepackaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write reflectively about it, relate it to past experiences, and apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves.

Arthur W. Chickering and Stephen C. Ehrmann

[acognitiveworld]

An Introduction

Welcome to A Cognitive World: A Focus on Online Classes. This is a blog centered around cognition and issues related to it, with a special focus on online learning. A modern place for modern sources related to our focus. 

Today, we begin posting papers which we have written regarding the matter of online classes and the cognitive issues which arose for college students in the Philippines.

Posts will be made in a serial manner starting tonight.

We hope that you will be able to read our findings, as well as enjoy any other posts we create to decorate our blog and keep it enjoyable as much as it is informative.