gahtad composition

lidren's langblr and stuff

[wonderful-language-sounds]

Websites to learn languages by reading

Hyplern

Language Crush

Readlang

Vocab Tracker

[toskarin]

it's poor form to air your petty grievances with someone when it comes out they did something actually bad. save that for companies, like when you learn duolingo removed kanji from its beginner's japanese courses as part of their collab with crunchy roll

[halfmoon-horse]

duolingo is shit for japanese imo*, here are some apps i reccommend:

Hey Japan - comes with a cute shiba inu bc fuck that aggressive owl. its basically duolingo made specifically for japanese and much better at teaching you HOW the language works.

Kanji Study - its the grey one, made by one person. it covers the first 80 kanji plus the main radicals that make kanji up, PLUS hiragana and katakana FOR FREE. you can practice by drawing, flash cards, multiple choice, and you can decide whether you read or select the romanji/character/meaning. i learned hiragana in 5 days using this. the upgraded version (one time payment) with higher level kanji goes on sale a few times a year, consider supporting the app if you find it useful

Todai - more advanced but good for reading comprehension. japanese news in... japanese. highlights which JLPT level words are and gives percentages of each level for each article. has inbuilt dictionary to check words you dont know.

Takoboto - my preferred japanese dictionary but there are loads out there. i like it bc i can search in english, romanji, kana, or kanji and it breaks down kanji compounds into individual characters. it also shows different conjugations eg: to eat, eating, ate, to be able to eat, etc

those are just the phone apps i use, there are so many other resources out there that are free and not pulling bullshit like skipping one of the 3 'alphabets' of a language

*to be clear the reason i think duolingo is shit for japanese is that it doesnt follow the JLPT pathway. which... you dont NEED exactly, but i think the country that had to make a new, easier language profiency test bc not enough people were passing the existing one will know how to build courses that teach their language. plus duolingo is doing *gestures* whatever shit that is up top.

if you seriously want to learn japanese, memorise your kana (drop romanji asap or youll forever struggle and I'll come to kick your shins) and find the ebook of genki 1 that someone uploaded, or some other JLPT N5 course. but NOT duolingo.

Edit: just realised that duolingo may be your only real option if your first language isnt english (too easy for me to forget, sorry). in that case, make sure you supplement duolingo with your own kanji study!!!

[gaysamurai]

Link to all the Genki exercises that let’s you do them in different ways (writing, matchups, multiple choice etc)

[theaudientvoid]

[theaudientvoid]

Specifically, to “swash a buckler” referred to the act of pounding a buckler (small shield) against one’s own chest as a sort of macho display.

[dduane]

Mmmm… close, but no cigar. 

To “swash” is to make a noise by beating one’s sword against one’s shield (or against others’ swords). Via the OED (it’s definition #3 below): 

And that “bucklers” are involved also tells you what kind of sword’s involved: not a big expensive longsword of one variety or another (for which you’d realistically need a way bigger shield for any kind of protection), but the shorter, lighter, cheaper weapons you might expect in back-alley street fighting among the (let’s all sneer decorously now) plebs and real-swordfighter-wannabes.

…Hence “swashbuckler” and words adjacent to it: 

…Anyway, it’s a fabulous word.  :)

[andi-rigby]

worked up an Oseram script... well, 2 actually. full documentation here, with rules and examples and some background.

feel free to play around with this, and let me know how it goes. I'll also take questions/suggestions on usage, etc 😉

or send me a note and I'll try to read it

[m-ushroomtale]

Chinese Opera Iconic Hand Gestures: A Collection (bilibili)

【避风】 Sheltering from the Wind

【迎风】 Into the Wind

【映日】 Sun Rays

【翻莲】 Curling Lotus

【双翅】 Twin Wings

【拂云】 Touching the Clouds

【并蒂】 Merged Stem

【斗芳】 Competing Fragrances

【逗花】 Teasing Flower

【含笑】 With A Hidden Smile

【散馥】 Spray of Perfume

【双双】 In Pairs

[salvadorbonaparte]

Hey did you know I keep a google drive folder with linguistics and language books  that I try to update regularly 

[salvadorbonaparte]

**UPDATE**

I have restructured the folders to make them easier to use and managed to add almost all languages requested and then some

Please let me know any further suggestions

[salvadorbonaparte]

[clockworktardis]

….holy shit. You found the holy grail.

[kittydesade]

….. is this a DIFFERENT person keeping gigabytes worth of language books on google drive? Holy crap.

[wyvyrn]

This. This here. Is why I love Tumblr.❤️❤️❤️

[bookishdiplodocus]

Naughty words in a godless world

Imagine you're writing a story that takes place in a world that has no God, or gods, or saints. What do you do with exclamations like "Oh gosh!" (derived from "Oh God") or "Jeez!" (derived from "Jesus!")? And - oh god - what do you do with curses and swear words? If your characters can't say "Oh my god", "hell no", or "damn" because there are no gods to damn anyone to hell... what are your options?

Here is a list for inspiration

In general, non-religious curse and swear words refer to local cultural taboos.

Many languages swear by referring to cleanliness: dirty, sweaty, sticky, smelly etc. This includes things you do on the toilet.

Some languages, like Dutch, use diseases as curses and insults. For example, someone nasty/bothersome might be called a "cancer sufferer" in Dutch. These swear words are combinations of (derivates of) typhus, cholera, and cancer.

Societal hierarchy and family trees, mainly the inferior positions like a bastard (seen as inferior in the family tree) or a derogatory word that refers to lower class people (seen as inferior in that society).

On the other hand, you could insult a highly valued member of the other person's family, like their mother, or of their society, like their Queen/Emperor.

Sexual taboos, often implying someone (or their mother) is more sexually active than society accepts of them.

Calling someone the word for someone's genitalia refers to the same taboo.

How do you apply this to your language?

You could use explicit/taboo words as ... :

... an intensifier: "It was a shit-hot day."

... a negative adjective: "This is a shitty job."

... an insulting noun: "This journey is shit."

Or try to be creative and combine different taboos for a multi-hit offense. My favorite one is the Spanish "I shit in your mother's milk", which combines insulting the other person's mother, the taboo of bodily functions, and the taboo of cleanliness.

During my research I came across this article, which contains a number of concrete examples from all over the world you can draw inspiration from.

And on a less offensive note, you could always make up your own equivalent of "Merlin's beard!", "Great Scott!", or "For Pete's sake!" (Pete, by the way, is a catholic reference: Pete is Saint Peter.)

I hope this was helpful. Don’t hesitate to ask me any questions, and happy writing!

Follow me for more writing advice, or check out my other writing tips here. New topics to write advice about are also always appreciated.

Tag list below the cut. If you like to be added to or removed from the list, let me know.

And if you come up with creative curses, feel free to add them in the comments :)

@therska @writingwordsaddrawingpictures @the-words-we-never-said @writingwhithotchocolate @i-rove-rock-n-roll @maskedlady @no-time-like-write-now @timefire25 @black-lakritz-dragon @nzmayart @fandomrandomness-stuff @dangertoozmanykids101 @anaestheticdisaster @storytellingofravens @purpleshadows1989 @mathematicpony @i-don-t-know-words @notquitenovelist @coffeescribles @reffaces @livingthelovelylife @katsglabella @lokitty-is-my-spirit-animal @thefallenbibliophilequote @watchmewritedumb @sting-the-scribe @kais-writing-shit @dameschnee123 @curiosityonmars @oodlittlething @nonbinarychaoticstupid

[lilyginnyblackv2]

This was fantastic! I can’t wait for the second part!!Someone in the comments section stated that they felt like they just sat through a really expensive and informative class, and that really is how it feels. I felt like I was back at college, and being taught by six different teachers. I loved it!

[loveletter2you]

dropbox containing linguistics textbooks

contains 34 textbooks including etymology, language acquisition, morphology, phonetics/phonology, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, & translation studies

dropbox containing language textbooks

contains 86 language textbooks including ASL, Arabic, (Mandarin) Chinese, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, Estonian, Farsi, French, German, Greek, Hebrew (Modern & Ancient), Hindi, Hungarian, Icelandic, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Latin, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Punjabi, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovene, Spanish, Swahili, Swedish, Tagalog, Thai, Turkish, Urdu, Vietnamese, Welsh

dropbox containing books about language learning

includes fluent forever by gabriel wyner, how to learn any language by barry farber, polyglot by kató lomb

if there’s a problem with any of the textbooks or if you want to request materials for a specific language feel free to message me!

[allthingslinguistic]

All Things Linguistic - 2020 Highlights

2020 wasn’t the year anyone was expecting, and I did much less travel than in previous years. But, while I was social distancing at home like everyone else, I did at least keep doing enjoyable linguistics things: Crash Course Linguistics videos went from early planning stages to nearly complete, Because Internet came out in paperback, and my podcast Lingthusiasm launched two other projects to contribute to the pop linguistics ecosystem: LingComm Grants and Mutual Intelligibility.

Because Internet

Because Internet, my book about internet language which hit the NYT bestseller list last year, came out in paperback this year! Links to get it in all of the formats, including how to get signed copies.

Here are some photos of the new paperback edition, same bright yellow cover, now with 10x more nice quotes from people. I also wrote an old-school reflexive blog post about what it’s like to hit the final milestone in a book journey that began in 2014.

Crash Course Linguistics

I worked on these 16 fun intro linguistics videos, 10-12 minutes long each, along with a large team, including linguists Lauren Gawne and Jessi Grieser, host Taylor Behnke, the animation team at Thought Cafe, and of course the production team at Crash Course itself. Writing the scripts ended up being our first lockdown project in the spring, and then reviewing the filmed and animated episodes for accuracy a second lockdown project in the fall. The final few videos will be appearing in early 2021 – you can watch them all at this playlist.

Preview trailer for Crash Course Linguistics

What is linguistics? Crash Course Linguistics #1

What is a word? Morphology, Crash Course Linguistics #2

Morphosyntax, Crash Course Linguistics #3

Syntax 2: Trees - Crash Course Linguistics #4

Semantics - Crash Course Linguistics #5

Pragmatics - Crash Course Linguistics #6

Sociolinguistics - Crash Course Linguistics #7

Phonetics 1: Consonants - Crash Course Linguistics #8

Phonetics 2: Vowels - Crash Course Linguistics #9

Phonology - Crash Course Linguistics #10

Psycholinguistics - Crash Course Linguistics #11

Language acquisition - Crash Course Linguistics #12

Language change and historical linguistics - Crash Course Linguistics #13

Other Writing

Wired Resident Linguist column:

Covid-19 Is History’s Biggest Translation Challenge

A Mission to Make Virtual Parties Actually Fun

Language Files videos, with Tom Scott and Molly Ruhl:

The sentences humans can understand but computers can’t

Abso-b████y-lutely - Expletive Infixation

the Hidden Rules of Conversation (about Grice’s Maxims)

schwa

the Bouba/Kiki experiment

the corpus statistics behind the pronunciation of “gif”

the complicated question of how many languages there are

Lingthusiasm

My fourth year of producing a podcast that’s enthusiastic about linguistics with Lauren Gawne! Regular episodes:

Making machines learn language - Interview with Janelle Shane

This time it gets tense - the grammar of time

What makes a language easy? It’s a hard question

The grammar of singular they - Interview with Kirby Conrod

Schwa, the most versatile English vowel

Tracing languages back before recorded history

Hey, no problem, bye! The social dance of phatics

The happy fun big adjective episode

Who you are in high school, linguistically speaking - Interview with Shivonne Gates

How translators approach a text

Climbing the sonority mountain from A to P

Small talk, big deal

And 12 bonus episodes, with thanks to our patrons for keeping the show sustainable:

What might English be like in a couple hundred years?

Generating a Lingthusiasm episode using a neural net

Teaching linguistics to yourself and other people

When letters have colours and time is a braid - The linguistics of synesthesia

A myriad of numbers - Counting systems across languages

Doing linguistics with kids

Tones, drums, and whistles - linguistics and music

LingComm on a budget (plus the Lingthusiasm origin story)

The quick brown pangram jumps over the lazy dog

The most esteemed honorifics episode

Crash Course Linguistics behind the scenes with Jessi Grieser

Q&A with lexicographer Emily Brewster of Merriam-Webster

We started a Lingthusiasm Discord server, a place for people who are enthusiastic about linguistics to find each other and talk! And we released new schwa-themed merch with the (admittedly aspirational these days) slogan Never Stressed.

Lingthusiasm also sponsored two other projects this year: LingComm Grants and Mutual Intelligibility.

LingComm Grants - We gave out four $500 grants to up-and-coming linguistics communications projects. Thank you again to everyone who applied, and do check out the projects of the winners of the 2020 LingComm Grants.

Mutual Intelligibility - A newsletter to connect linguistics instructors with existing linguistics resources suitable for teaching online in a bite-sized, easy-to-digest fashion, with considerable help from the editing and organizational skills of Liz McCullough.

Keep reading

[livia-1291]

Hello! Do you like languages? Then have I got the time sink for you! 

Allow me to introduce you to wals.info - the World Atlas of Language Structures. WALS is an excellent tool to help you get a quick overview of a language and its features! WALS currently offers overviews for 2,662 languages - that’s over a third of the recognized languages in the world!

Let’s take a look at one language to get started. 

You can search for a languages by clicking the “Languages” button in the top green bar. I have a lot of Finnish followers (moi!) so let’s take a look at Finnish.

Immediately I can see where in the world Finnish is spoken (both country and macroarea) and what family and genus it belongs to. Now let’s take a closer look by clicking on “Finnish.”

Check out all of this information! This might be a little overwhelming for some people, so we’ll break it down so we know what we’re looking at. 

First, in the top right corner, you can see a map that tells us where the language is located. Below it, you can find alternate names in other major language data services, and then you can see the sources for the information.

But what’s super cool is the chart in the middle-left of the page - you can see all of the features that characterize Finnish as a language. For example, we can see that it has a moderately small number of consonants, but a larger number of vowels than average. We can also note that it has both voiced fricatives and plosives, but it does not contain any glottal or uvular consonants at all.

If you scroll down further, you can see if a language has tone (no for Finnish,) what its syllable structure is (moderately complex) and the rhythm type (ever wonder why the Kalevala was written in trochaic tetrameter?) 

The other cool thing about WALS is its feature maps. Let’s say you’re really interested in vowel inventories, and you want to see which languages have large vowel inventories, which ones have small ones, and which ones are average.

Go to the “Features” button on the green bar at the top of the page and pick “features.” Click “Vowel Quality Inventories” (or whichever feature intrigues you most.) WALS will give you a cool map that offers a ton of information on languages and their vowel inventories so you can spot patterns at a glance. Mousing over a dot will also tell you what language it represents.

Bear in mind that the maps to not contain every language on WALS.

That’s all of the information I have for you today! If you have any questions, feel free to shoot me a message. Enjoy, and tune in next time for a ramble about IPA consonants. 

Wugs and kisses,

Liv

[linguisten]

CLICS: World’s largest database of cross-linguistic lexical associations

A team of scientists, led by scholars from the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, has published a new version of the Database of Cross-Linguistic Colexifications (CLICS), covering lexical associations in more than 3100 languages varieties. The new version of the database offers lexical data on an unprecedented scale and provides a detailed, reproducible workflow for data aggregation, allowing scholars from all over the world to contribute to future versions.

https://clics.clld.org/

Every language has cases in which two or more concepts are expressed by the same word, such as the English word fly, which refers to both the act of flying and to the insect. By comparing patterns in these cases, which linguists call colexifications, across languages, researchers can gain insights into a wide range of issues, including human perception, language evolution, and language contact. The third installment of the CLICS database significantly increases the number of languages, concepts, and data sources available in earlier versions, allowing researchers to study colexifications on a global scale in unprecedented detail and depth.

Zoom Image 

Colexification network centered on the concepts of “hand” and “arm”© J.-M. List, T. Tresoldi

With detailed computer-assisted workflows, CLICS facilitates the standardization of linguistic datasets and provides solutions to many of the persistent challenges in linguistic research. “While data aggregation was generally based on ad-hoc procedures in the past, our new workflows and guidelines for best practice are an important step to guarantee the reproducibility of linguistic research,” says Tiago Tresoldi.

Effectiveness of CLICS demonstrated in research applications

The ability of CLICS to provide new evidence to address cutting-edge questions in psychology and cognition has already been illustrated in a recent study published in Science, which concentrated on the world-wide coding of emotion concepts. The study compared colexification networks of words for emotion concepts from a global sample of languages, and revealed that the meanings of emotions vary greatly across language families.

“In this study, CLICS was used to study differences in the lexical coding of emotion in languages around the world, but the potential of the database is not limited to emotion concepts. Many more interesting questions can be tackled in the future,” says Johann-Mattis List.

New standards and workflows allow for the reproducible harvesting of global lexical data

Building on the new guidelines for standardized data formats in cross-linguistic research, which were first presented in 2018 (DOI: 10.1038/sdata.2018.205), the CLICS team was able to increase the amount of data from 300 language varieties and 1200 concepts in the original database to 3156 language varieties and 2906 concepts in the current installation. The new version also guarantees the reproducibility of the data aggregation process, conforming to best practices in research data management. “Thanks to the new standards and workflows we developed, our data is not only FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable, and reproducible), but the process of lifting linguistic data from their original forms to our cross-linguistic standards is also much more efficient than in the past,” says Robert Forkel.

Zoom Image

Global distribution of languages included in the CLICS3 release, identified by language family© S. J. Greenhill

The effectiveness of the workflow developed for CLICS has been tested and confirmed in various validation experiments involving a large range of scholars and students. Two different student tasks were conducted, resulting in the creation of new datasets and the progressive improvement of the existing data. Students were tasked with working through the different steps of data set creation described in the study, e.g. data extraction, data mapping (to reference catalogs), and identification of sources. “Having people from outside of the core team use and test your tools is essential and helps tremendously in fine-tuning all processes,” says Christoph Rzymski.

With CLICS and its workflow being accessible to a wider audience, scholars cannot only directly contribute to the database in the future; they can also profit from the established machinery and start their own targeted collections. “The number of linguists who actively use our standards and workflows is constantly increasing. We hope that the release of this new version of CLICS will propagate them further,” says Simon Greenhill.

Publication: Scientific Data

DOI: 10.1038/s41597-019-0341-x

[yuk-tepat]

Typology

You know what analytical/isolating, agglutinative, and fusional languages are, I presume. You’ve heard about heads and dependents and word-orders, you can tell the difference between head-initial and head-final. You know what SOV, SVO, VSO, VOS, OVS, and OSV mean, and which ones like prepositions and which ones like postpositions. Maybe you know what an ergative language is. Is that all? What else do you know about your language? Some things to think  about:

Does your language have vowel harmony? OK, but does it have consonant harmony?

What restrictions does it place on the shape of roots? Are they different from restrictions on the shape of words or syllables? Can the same phoneme occur twice in a root? Are phonemes from the same class required, or banned?

Is its prosody stress-timed, syllable-timed, or mora-timed?

If it’s tonal, does it have contour tones? Is tone lexically determined? Does each syllable have marked tone?

Does your language mark grammatical relations in clauses? Does it bother to mark them at all?

Is your language accusative, ergative, tripartite, transitive, or neutral?

Is your ergative language totally ergative or split-ergative?

Does it have active-stative alignment? What determines the alignment of intransitive subjects? The semantics of the subject? The semantics of the verb? Something else?

Is it a topic-prominent language?

Does it use some other system, like an Austronesian ‘trigger’ system, or direct-inverse marking? What determines the order / marking of the arguments? An animacy hierarchy?

Does it mark experiencers of experiential verbs like agents or patients or something else?

Does your language have any ditransitive verbs? Is it dechticaetive or secundative?

Can a sentence omit any argument of the verb? Only the subject? No arguments at all?

What is the word order, and what determines it?

Is it consistently head-final or head-initial, or mixed? And where does the split occur?

Is there V2 order, or another unusual order?

Do certain structures, like subordinate clauses or questions, require different orders?

Does something other than syntactic relations determine word order?

Do relative clauses precede their head, or follow their head, or does it have internally-headed relative clauses?

Does it use a relative pronoun, another linking word, a special inflection, or no marking on the relative clause?

Does it allow gaps in a relative clause, or require resumptive pronouns?

Does it use some less common relativization strategy, like correlative constructions?

Is your language highly deranking? Are coordinate or subordinate constructions more marked?

Do you allow serial verbs?

Is your language head-marking or dependent-marking? Or double-marking? Or zero-marking? Or marks relations on something else?

Is your language inconsistent in marking type? Where does the split occur? Is there a pattern? (E.g., head-marked clauses and dependent-marked noun phrases in Bantu.)

Is your language synthetic?

Does your language have derivational morphology, but no inflectional morphology?

Do morphemes tack on to each other like legos, one after the other, in linear order? Or not?

Does it have portmanteau morphemes?

Does it have non-concatenating morphology?

Does it have templatic morphology (e.g., Semitic triliteral roots)

Is there a limit to the number of morphemes you can tack onto a root?

Do the morphemes occur in a fixed order, or can you change the order, say to indicate scope?

Do you allow multiple roots in one word form, or does each complex word have only one root, no matter how many derivations and inflections you apply to it?

Can verbs incorporate multiple verb roots?

Can verbs incorporate nouns?

If a verb incorporates a possessed noun, does the possessor get marked on its person-marking

How many different arguments are indexed in your verbs’ person-marking? None? Only subject? Subject and object? Indirect objects too? Non-core arguments?

How do you construct comparatives?

Do you use a case form or adposition, or a particle like ‘than’?

Do you have ‘exceed’ comparatives, positive-negative comparatives, or topical comparatives?

Are motion events verb-framing or satellite-framing?

For satellite-framing languages, are the motion verbs manner-conflating or figure-conflating? Or even ground-conflating?

Do you mark evidentiality?

Do you distinguish alienable and inalienable possession?

Does your language have a copula? Multiple copulas? Does it have a separate existential verb? Does it have a ‘have’ verb?

Does it have separate words for ‘tree’ and ‘wood’?

[lexiconga]

Great list of questions! This will be super helpful for me!

[lidrens]

original by @darkearthsuggestions​

i'sidâl sûlf aerm-at hlîþ, gattaid ën nad fraid aeg. laðgi wân-losgart allsum vener, dis won ogwin ë lîn, rayad möl-i gëvar. urôr i'ûf-im jôhriþ, er dronn or vênn, vastaid daseð ûf; rior gear-il ëx aman. sarg ë di hor lastaid, angômeþ wan-losgar faer-ae. horir gemalt eiþ i'qas; alfân i'sidîl– hi'ommer þaivan; dis porë mêltar eiþ.

featured words:

sidâl /siˈdaːl/ noun “myth”, from tz. zígárd “spoken word”; folk etymology often misenterprets it as sid (”ancestor”) and âl (”speech”) > “tale [passed down] by ancestors”.

armë /arm/ noun “soul”

losgor /lɔsˈkor/ noun “ant”, from tz. alóhšghur < alóhšak-nhur “builder of earth”  wân-losgar /waːn lasˈkar/ noun “ant-lion”; wan /waːn/ noun “lord, king”

ûf /uːf/ noun “dust”

deurese script:

translation and transliteration under the cut:

Keep reading

[darkearthsuggestions]

For the mythical creatures ask - genderfluid, 5'3", brown hair, brown eyes. A house in southern California with light gray brick. Fishing on the Kenai Peninsula of Alaska. Loves LotR/The Hobbit/The Silmarillion/HoME. My headcanon Tolkien Elves must always look like ancient terrors, it's The Law. Kind of wish I could shapeshift. I also wish I looked like my headcanon Tolkien elves, I wanna be scarier than I am. Chaotic good. Terrible sleep schedule, basically nocturnal at this point.

The myth is a home for the half-made, the split and single soul. There is no lack of ant-lions in the world, fierce and hard and twinning pride with the need for a colony. Snap at the dust that wanders round you, small but complete, safe in being dust; but it is made of earth and air, same as you. If the head and the stomach are separate, the ant-lion starves on meat; find the new truth in the elision, the story in the myth-- it is not a crude compilation, but the crafting of something new.

[linguistness]

Sentence Structure {1} - Word Classes

Open word classes: 

Open word classes are expandable by word formation or by neologism. They are:

Nouns:

plural formation (a chair - chairs)

used with determiners (the, a)

Full/lexical verbs:

e.g. walk, come, play, cook, see

Adjectives:

attributive –> describe an attribute of another word (a happy person)

predicative –> describe how something is (the person is happy)

can be modified by the word “very” (very good, very stylish, very sad)

comparisons –> comparative & superlative forms (happy - happier - happiest)

Adverbs:

used alone

modification of an adjective or verb (She is absolutely stunning, He talked calmly)

Closed word classes: 

Closed word classes have a limited number of elements and are not expandable. They are: 

Determiners:

stand before nouns

define the reference of nouns

subclasses: identifiers –> define something further, e.g. a, the, my, this; quantifiers –> express a certain amount of something, e.g. a lot, few, many

Auxiliary verbs:

Auxiliary verbs are always used together with a full verb and precede it.

Primary auxiliaries –> be, have, do (when in front of another verb)

Modal auxiliaries –> can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must (no infinitive, no participle, no 3rd person -s)

Pronouns:

personal pronouns: I you, we, they, etc.

possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, etc.

reflexive pronouns: myself, herself, ourselves, etc.

reciprocal pronouns: each other, one another, etc.

relative pronouns: which, who, whom, that, etc.

interrogative pronouns: who, whose, what, etc.

demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, etc.

indefinite pronouns: some, any much, etc.

Prepositions:

completed by nouns

express temporal, logical or local relationship –> after breakfast, in the car, with him, etc.

Conjunctions:

connect clauses

coordinating conjunction –> and, or, but (paratactical relation)

subordinating conjunction –> because, if, since, although (hypotactical relation) 

[mousekatsu]

“must [not]” in Swedish

The Swedish verb måste and the English verb must correspond to each other unless they are used with negation. Otherwise, the English must not is rendered by får inte whereas måste inte means need not or don’t need to.

The same difference exists in the past tense: fick inte means wasn’t allowed to, whereas måste inte means didn’t need to. (Måste is used for the present, past and future tenses).

Jag måste går nu I must/have to leave now

Man får inte röka här One must not smoke here

Polisen sade, att han måste legitimera sig The police said he had to show proof of identity

Vi måste resa hem snart We shall have to go home soon

Du måste inte vara där förrän You don’t have to be there until five