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@i-do-science-sometimes-blog
take care of yourself, okay?
Neurotransmitters
Central nervous system
Glutamate
GABA
Glycine
Dopamine
Serotonin
Noradrenaline
Histamine
Orexin
Endorphins
Peripheral nervous system
Noradrenaline
Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter synthesis/packaging
Some neurotransmitters are readily available amino acids eg Glutamate, glycine
Some are synthesised by the cells that secrete them eg GABA, noradrenaline, dopamine
Noradrenaline synthesis:
Packaging
In the presynapse, neurotransmitter is contained in vesicles
The neurotransmitter must be packaged into the vesicle ready for release
Uses transporters and proton gradients to package
[packaging and release - above]
Neurotransmitter release is quantal – Each vesicle contains the same amount of neurotransmitter
Therefore it is the number of vesicles fusing which determines the post synaptic potentials
membranes must fuse for release - membrane fusion is energetically unfavourable so must be catalysed by something
SNARE Hypothesis
Proteins on the presynaptic membrane ‘grab’ proteins on the vesicle membrane
These SNARE proteins pull the two membranes close together
SNARE proteins provide most of the energy for membrane fusion
v-SNARE (VAMP2) – on vesicle membrane
t-SNAREs (syntaxin1A, SNAP-25) on target membrane
Bind together to make SNARE complex
SNARE ‘zippering’ forces the membranes close together
Spontaneous, highly energetically favourable
Once assembled, they require ATP hydrolysis to separate them
Ca2+ binding to synaptotagmin provides extra energy to fuse the membranes
Neurotransmitter release
synaptic vesicle release sites are highly organised and regulated
exocytose into synaptic cleft
presynaptic active zone:
Neurotransmitter detection
Ionotropic (ion channel coupled) – Glutamate, GABA, Glycine
Metabotropic (G-protein coupled) – monoamines, histamine etc.
Some have both kinds, e.g. glutamate, GABA
Ionotropic responses are faster
Metabotropic responses can have more diverse effects
Glutamate receptors
Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
Three classes of ionotropic receptor – AMPA – NMDA – Kainate
Named after pharmacological agonists
All let in positive ions when they bind glutamate
Glutamate also has a family of metabotropic receptors – mGluRs – These modulate neurotransmission
AMPA Receptors
Main fast excitatory receptor
Strength of a synapse is largely determined by its complement of AMPARs
More AMPAR in the post-synaptic membrane = stronger synaptic transmission
NMDA Receptors
Minor role in postsynaptic firing
Major role is in synaptic plasticity
NMDA receptors are calcium permeable
require strong neurotransmitter release to open
Ready or not, here I come
March 15, 2016 - Making notecards for my physiology exam! Spot my mistakes?
1.13.16 | Endocrine System cards I love to draw scientific diagrams for physio
||December 13, 2016|| The product of sleep deprivation (5 hours of sleep in the last two days?? How am I still alive).
I started typing up my animal physiology notes & I thought some of you might appreciate them :)
Acid-base homeostasis
Normal acid production in body
VOLATILE ACIDS:
Produced by oxidative metabolism of CHO, Fat, Protein
Average 15000-20000 mmol of CO₂ per day
Excreted through LUNGS as CO₂ gas
FIXED ACIDS (1 mEq/kg/day)
Acids that do not leave solution ,once produced they remain in body fluids until eliminated by kidneys
Eg: Sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid
Organic acids
Are most important fixed acids in the body
generated during catabolism of: amino acids(oxidation of sulfhydryl gps of cystine,methionine) Phospholipids (hydrolysis) and nucleic acids
Regulation
Buffers
Moderate changes in pH
Combine with or release H+, cellular proteins, phosphate ions, haemoglobin, or bicarbonate
Lungs
Ventilation = rapid response, corrects 75% of disturbances; can also cause them
Renal regulation
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Directly by excreting or reabsorbing H+
Indirectly by changing in the rate at which HCO3– buffer is reabsorbed or excreted
Imbalances
Normal pH : 7.35-7.45
Acidosis = abnormally low plasma pH - Acidemia: plasma pH < 7.35
Alkalosis = abnormally high plasma pH - Alkalemia: plasma pH > 7.45
Metabolic acidosis: dietary and metabolic input of H+ exceeds excretion
Metabolic alkalosis: loss of H+ through excessive vomiting or excessive ingestion of bicarbonate-containing antacids
Repository: hyperventilation or hypoventilation cause pH to shift when PCO2 changes
24/11/15 | getting on with some human anatomy and physiology revision
Trying to sort through 3 years of notes, and decide what to keep, this pile is just cards
Medical School Resources! (and other human biology,physiology,biochemistry-related resources)
Hi Everyone!
Update: I am now officially done with my second year! I know i’ve been MIA on here for a while now - but that’s only because I was drowning in textbooks and assignments! I will be writing a whole other post on what my second year in medical school was like - so watch out for that :)
I, for one, can not just rely on one method of learning. Meaning, I’ll jump from videos, to textbooks, to flashcards. In this post I’m going to list some of my holy grail youtube channels that have helped saved me.
1) Handwritten Tutorials
https://www.youtube.com/user/harpinmartin
Every video in this channel is short, but not so much that you feel like you’re missing out on information. Definitely one to save as a favourite!
2) Armando Hasudungan
https://www.youtube.com/user/armandohasudungan
The best thing about this channel is the fact that there are over 300 videos, covering a wide range of core topics in endocrinology, neurology, physiology and pharmacology. Another pro is the presentation of topics (otherwise considered snooze-worthy) in an artistic manner!
3) Speed Pharmacology
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC-i2EBYXH6-GAglvuDIaufQ
Raise your hand if you’ve ever fallen asleep trying to read about the mechanism of action of opioids, their side effects and contraindications. I know I have. Fret not, for this youtube channel will introduce you to a world where pharmacology is actually interesting.
4) Wendy Riggs
https://www.youtube.com/user/wendogg1
Wendy Riggs is a very down-to-earth professor in Northern California, and she covers a wide range of topics in Anatomy, Physiology and General Biology.
5) Anatomy Zone
https://www.youtube.com/user/TheAnatomyZone
A better way to learn anatomy is to supplement your textbook information with videos from this channel. The explanations and visuals provided are absolute gold.
I hope you all find these channels as helpful as I did!
Requested by anonymous: Human Physiology, The Nervous System. Includes: Organization of the NS, Structure of a Neuron, Reflex Arc, Nerve Impulse, Synapse.
These pages are out of my class composition notebook, sorry if my handwriting is hard to read. Ask me if you want any other lecture notes that you want from me and I’ll see if I have it! If you run into any problems, contact me! + In my class we did multiple lectures related to the nervous system, i hope they are helpful to you!
Finally posting my brain anatomy notes…
Neurotransmitters
Central nervous system
Glutamate
GABA
Glycine
Dopamine
Serotonin
Noradrenaline
Histamine
Orexin
Endorphins
Peripheral nervous system
Noradrenaline
Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter synthesis/packaging
Some neurotransmitters are readily available amino acids eg Glutamate, glycine
Some are synthesised by the cells that secrete them eg GABA, noradrenaline, dopamine
Noradrenaline synthesis:
Packaging
In the presynapse, neurotransmitter is contained in vesicles
The neurotransmitter must be packaged into the vesicle ready for release
Uses transporters and proton gradients to package
[packaging and release - above]
Neurotransmitter release is quantal – Each vesicle contains the same amount of neurotransmitter
Therefore it is the number of vesicles fusing which determines the post synaptic potentials
membranes must fuse for release - membrane fusion is energetically unfavourable so must be catalysed by something
SNARE Hypothesis
Proteins on the presynaptic membrane ‘grab’ proteins on the vesicle membrane
These SNARE proteins pull the two membranes close together
SNARE proteins provide most of the energy for membrane fusion
v-SNARE (VAMP2) – on vesicle membrane
t-SNAREs (syntaxin1A, SNAP-25) on target membrane
Bind together to make SNARE complex
SNARE ‘zippering’ forces the membranes close together
Spontaneous, highly energetically favourable
Once assembled, they require ATP hydrolysis to separate them
Ca2+ binding to synaptotagmin provides extra energy to fuse the membranes
Neurotransmitter release
synaptic vesicle release sites are highly organised and regulated
exocytose into synaptic cleft
presynaptic active zone:
Neurotransmitter detection
Ionotropic (ion channel coupled) – Glutamate, GABA, Glycine
Metabotropic (G-protein coupled) – monoamines, histamine etc.
Some have both kinds, e.g. glutamate, GABA
Ionotropic responses are faster
Metabotropic responses can have more diverse effects
Glutamate receptors
Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
Three classes of ionotropic receptor – AMPA – NMDA – Kainate
Named after pharmacological agonists
All let in positive ions when they bind glutamate
Glutamate also has a family of metabotropic receptors – mGluRs – These modulate neurotransmission
AMPA Receptors
Main fast excitatory receptor
Strength of a synapse is largely determined by its complement of AMPARs
More AMPAR in the post-synaptic membrane = stronger synaptic transmission
NMDA Receptors
Minor role in postsynaptic firing
Major role is in synaptic plasticity
NMDA receptors are calcium permeable
require strong neurotransmitter release to open
[10.26.16] chapter 5 anatomy notes! (Types of tissues) im so tired these days :( but i did pretty well on my anatomy test so im proud!
{58/100 days of productivity}