My Leaving Cert. Notes

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Biology Plus Revise Definitions

abiotic factors

non-living factors

acquired     variations

are not inherited but are learned or developed during life

active immunity

the production of a person’s own antibodies in response to foreign antigens that enter the body

active site

the part of an enzyme that combines with the substrate

active     transport

energy (in the form of ATP) is used to move molecules, often against a concentration gradient, i.e. from low concentrations to high concentrations

adaptation

any alteration that improves an organism’s chances of survival and reproduction

adhesion

occurs when different molecules stick together

aerobic     respiration

the controlled release of energy from food using oxygen

all or nothing     law

states that if the threshold is reached an impulse is carried, but if the threshold is not reached no impulse is carried

alleles

different (or alternative) forms of the same gene

anabolic     reactions

use energy to convert smaller molecules into larger molecules

anaerobic     respiration

the controlled release of energy from food without the use of oxygen

antagonistic     pair

two muscles that have opposite effects to each other

antibiotics

chemicals produced by micro-organisms that stop the growth of, or kill, other micro-organisms without damaging human tissue

antibody

a protein produced by white blood cells (called lymphocytes) in response to a specific antigen

anticodon

a sequence of three bases (a triplet) on tRNA that are complementary to a sequence of three bases on mRNA

antigen

a foreign molecule that stimulates the production of antibodies

appendicular     skeleton

composed of the limbs (arms and legs), the pectoral (shoulder) girdle and the pelvic (hip) girdle

artificial     active immunity

occurs when a pathogen is medically introduced into the body

artificial     passive immunity

occurs when a person is given an injection containing antibodies made by another organism

aseptic or     asepsis

means that measures are taken to exclude unwanted micro-organisms

asexual     reproduction

involves only one parent

autotrophic     (organism)

one that makes its own food

axial skeleton

consists of the skull, spine, ribs and sternum (breastbone)

·         bacteriophage (or phage)

a virus that infects bacteria

·         balanced diet

contains all the necessary food types in the correct proportions

·         batch culture

the growth of cells in a sealed container (or bioreactor) over a short period of time and under ideal conditions until all the nutrients are used up

·         biogenesis

living things arise from other living things of the same type

·         biology

the study of living things

·         biomolecules

chemicals that are made inside a living thing

·         bioprocessing

the use of enzyme-controlled reactions to produce a product

·         bioreactor

a vessel or container in which living cells or their products are used to make a product

·         biosphere

that part of the planet containing living organisms

·         biotechnology

the use of living things or their components (especially cells and enzymes) to manufacture useful products or to carry out useful reactions

·         biotic factors

living factors

·         birth control

methods taken to limit the number of children that are born

·         blastocyst (or blastula)

a hollow ball of cells formed from a morula

·         blood pressure

the force exerted by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels (mainly the arteries)

·         bud

a potential growth point that may develop into a shoot, a leaf or a flower

·         bulb

a modified bulb

·         cancer

a group of disorders in which certain cells lose their ability to control both the rate of mitosis and the number of times mitosis takes place

·         carnivores

animals that feed mainly on animals. Examples are dogs, cats and ladybirds.

·         carpels

the female parts of the flower

·         catabolic reactions

release energy when a complex molecule is broken down to a simpler form

·         catalyst

a substance that speeds up a reaction, without itself being used up in the reaction

·         cell continuity

all cells develop from pre-existing cells

·         cell cycle

the changes that take place in a cell during the period between one cell division and the next

·         cellular energy

the energy stored in the bonds of biomolecules

·         centromere

the point at which the chromosomes are attached in a double-stranded chromosome

·         characteristics

traits or features that are inherited genetically

·         chemosynthesis

the production of food using energy released from chemical reactions

·         chemotropism

a change in growth of a plant in response to chemicals

·         chromatin

the name given to chromosomes when they are elongated and not dividing

·         chromosome mutation

a large change in the structure or number of one or more chromosomes

·         chromosomes

coiled threads of DNA (which forms genes) and protein that become visible in the nucleus at cell division

·         classification

placing objects into groups based on similar characteristics

·         climatic factors

refer to weather over a long period of time

·         cloning

the production of identical copies of the bacterium (containing the target gene)

·         closed circulatory system

blood remains in a continuous system of blood vessels

·         codon (or triplet)

a sequence of three bases in DNA (or RNA) that act as a code for an amino acid

·         cohesion

the sticking of similar molecules to each other

·         community

all the different populations in an area

·         competition

occurs when organisms actively struggle for a resource that is in short supply

·         conclusion

a summary of the results of an experiment

·         conservation

the wise management of the existing natural resources in an ecosystem, in order to maintain a wide range of habitats and prevent the death and extinction of organisms

·         consumers

organisms that take in food from another organism

·         contest competition

an active physical contest between two individual organisms

·         continuity of life

living things arise from other living things of the same type

·         continuous flow (food processing)

the growth of cells in an open container (or bioreactor), where nutrients are added and the end products are removed all the time at a rate that maintains the volume of liquid and the number of cells

·         contraception

the deliberate prevention of fertilisation or pregnancy

·         control

used to provide a comparison (or standard) against which the actual experiment can be judged

·         copulation

the act of sexual intercourse

·         cotyledon

a seed leaf

·         cross-pollination

the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma on a different plant

·         cutting

a portion of a plant that is removed from the parent plant and grown into a new, independent plant

·         cytoplasm

the living material in a cell outside the nucleus

·         data

the measurements, observations or information gathered from experiments

·         decomposers

organisms that feed on dead organic matter

·         denatured enzyme

one that has lost its shape and can no longer carry out its function

·         denitrification

the conversion of nitrates to nitrogen gas

·         detritus feeders

organisms that feed on small pieces of dead organic matter

·         diastole

when the heart chambers relax

·         diffusion

the spreading out of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration

·         dihybrid cross

involves the study of two characteristics

·         diploid cell

one that has two sets of chromosomes, i.e. it has two of each type of chromosome in the nucleus

·         dispersal

the transfer of a seed or fruit away from the parent plant

·         DNA profile

a method of making a unique pattern of bands from the DNA of a person, which can then be used to compare with the DNA profile of another person

·         dominant

the allele that prevents the recessive allele from being expressed

·         dormancy

a resting period when seeds undergo no growth and have reduced cell activity or metabolism

·         double blind

both the investigator and the participant are unaware of the nature of the treatment the participant is receiving

·         ecological niche (of an organism)

the functional role it plays in the community

·         ecology

the study of the interactions between living things (organisms) and between organisms and their environment

·         ecosystem

a group of clearly distinguished organisms that interact with their environment as a unit

·         ectotherms

gain or lose heat from or to their external environment

·         edaphic factors

relate to soil

·         ejaculation

the release of semen from the penis

·         endocrine gland

a ductless gland that produces hormones, which are released directly into the bloodstream

·         endospermic seed

contains some endosperm when fully formed

·         endotherms

generate their own heat from metabolic reactions

·         enzyme specifity

each enzyme will react with only one particular substrate

·         enzymes

proteins that speed up a reaction without being used up in the reaction

·         ethics

relates to whether conduct is right or wrong

·         eukaryotic cells

have a nucleus and cell organelles, all of which are enclosed by membranes

·         evolution

the way in which living things change genetically to produce new forms of life over long periods of time

·         excretion

the removal of waste products of metabolism from the body

·         exhalation

breathing out

·         exocrine glands

release their product into ducts or tubes

·         experiment

a test for a hypothesis

·         expression

the formation of the product by the organism with the recombinant DNA

·         facultative parasite

can get its food from a live or a dead host

·         fauna

all the animals in an ecosystem

·         fermentation

another name for anaerobic respiration

·         fertilisation

the union of the male and female gametes to form a diploid zygote

·         filtration

water and small molecules pass (under high pressure) from the blood into the nephron

·         flora

all the plants in an ecosystem

·         food chain

a sequence of organisms in which each one is eaten by the next member in the chain

·         food web

two or more interlinked food chains

·         forensic medicine

the way in which medical knowledge is used in legal situations

·         fossil

the remains of something that lived a long time ago (or some indication of something that lived a long time ago)

·         frequency

the chance of finding a named species with any one throw of a quadrat

·         fruit

a developed ovary

·         gametes

haploid cells capable of fusion

·         ganglion

(plural: ganglia) a group of cell bodies located outside the CNS

·         gene

a section of DNA that contains the instructions for the formation of a protein

·         gene (or point) mutation

a change in a single gene

·         gene expression

the way in which the genetic information in a gene is decoded in the cell and used to make a protein

·         general defence system

acts as a barrier to all pathogens attempting to gain entry to the human body

·         genetic code

the sequence of bases in DNA that provide the instruction for a cell (using RNA) to form a protein

·         genetic engineering

the artificial manipulation or alteration of genes

·         genetic screening

testing DNA for the presence or absence of a particular gene or an altered gene

·         genotype

the genetic make-up of an organism, i.e. the genes that are present

·         geotropism (or gravitropism)

the change in growth of a plant in response to gravity

·         germ layers

basic layers of cells in the blastocyst from which all adult tissues and organs will form

·         germination

the regrowth of the embryo, after a period of dormancy, if the environmental conditions are suitable

·         gestation

the length of time spent in the uterus from fertilisation to birth

·         glycolysis

the conversion of glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid

·         gonad

an organ that produces sex cells in animals

·         grafting

the joining and uniting of part of one plant with a second plant

·         growth inhibitor

a chemical that causes a reduction in growth of plants

·         growth plate

the area between the epiphysis and the diaphysis in a long bone within which bone growth occurs

·         growth promoter

a chemical that causes increased growth in plants

·         growth regulator

a chemical that controls the growth of a plant

·         habitat

the place where a plant or an animal lives (and is also the local area of study)

·         haploid cell

one that has one set of chromosomes, i.e. it has only one of each type of chromosome in the nucleus

·         helper T cells

stimulate B cells and killer T cells

·         herbaceous plants

do not contain wood (or lignin)

·         herbivores

animals that feed mainly on plants. Examples are sheep, cattle and rabbits.

·         heredity

the passing on of features from parents to offspring by means of genes

·         heterotrophic (organism)

one that takes in food made by other organisms

·         heterozygous

the alleles are different

·         homeostasis

the ability of an organism to maintain a constant internal environment

·         homologous pair

two chromosomes of similar size with the same sequence of genes

·         homozygous

two alleles that are identical

·         hormone

a chemical messenger produced by an endocrine gland and carried by the bloodstream to another part of the body, where it has a specific effect

·         hydrotropism

a change in growth of a plant in response to water

·         hypha

a tube or filament in a fungus

·         hypothesis

an educated guess based on observations

·         immobilised enzymes

are attached, or fixed, to each other, or to an inert material

·         immunisation

occurs when we produce or are injected with antibodies against a pathogen

·         immunity

the ability to resist infection

·         implantation

the embedding of the fertilised egg into the lining of the uterus

·         in-vitro fertilisation

(IVF) removing eggs from an ovary and fertilising them outside the body

·         incomplete dominance

neither allele is dominant or recessive with respect to the other. Both alleles are equally expressed in the heterozygous genotype to produce an intermediate phenotype.

·         induced immunity

the ability to resist disease caused by specific pathogens by the production of antibodies

·         infertility

the inability to produce offspring

·         inhalation

breathing in

·         inherited variations

are controlled by genes

·         insemination

the release of semen into the vagina, just outside the cervix

·         inter-specific competition

occurs between members of different species

·         interneuron (also called an intermediate, relay or association neuron)

carries information between sensory and motor neurons

·         internode

the region on a stem between two nodes

·         interphase

the phase in the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing

·         intra-specific competition

occurs between members of the same species

·         isolation

the removal of the chromosome (containing the target gene) from the human cell and the plasmid DNA from the bacterium

·         joint

where two or more bones meet

·         key

a means of naming organisms by answering a series of questions with alternative answers

·         killer T cells

destroy abnormal human body cells

·         lactation

the secretion of milk by the mammary glands (breasts) of the female

·         larynx

the voice box

·         law of independent assortment

states that: when gametes are formed either of a pair of alleles is equally likely to combine with either of another pair of alleles

·         law of segregation

(Mendel’s first law) states that: Inherited characteristics are controlled by pairs of alleles. These alleles segregate (or separate) from each other at gamete formation, with only one member of the pair being found in each gamete.

·         law or principle

arises from a theory that has been shown to be valid when fully tested over a long period of time

·         layering

the growth of a new plant from a stem that is still attached to the parent plant

·         lenticels

openings in the stems of plants that allow gas exchange

·         life

the possession of all the following characteristics: organised, requiring nutrition and excretion, capable of responding and reproducing

·         ligaments

strong, fibrous, slightly elastic tissues that connect bone to bone

·         ligation

the joining of two sections of DNA to form a single strand

·         lignin

a strengthening material found in some plant cell walls

·         linkage

genes are located on the same chromosome

·         locus (of a gene)

its position on a chromosome

·         meiosis

a form of nuclear division in which the four daughter nuclei contain half the chromosome number of the parent nucleus

·         memory B cells

survive for years after the infection is eliminated and can make the specific antibody if the same infection later enters the body

·         menopause

when ovulation and menstruation stop happening in a female

·         menstrual cycle

a series of events that occurs every 28 days on average in the female if fertilisation has not taken place

·         menstruation

the discharge of the lining of the uterus (the endometrium) and the unfertilised egg

·         meristem

a plant tissue capable of mitosis

·         metabolism

the sum of all the chemical reactions in an organism

·         micro-organisms

small living things

·         micropropagation

the growth of plants from small pieces of tissue under sterile conditions on a specially selected medium

·         mitosis

a form of nuclear division in which one nucleus divides to form two nuclei, each containing the same number of chromosomes with identical genes

·         monohybrid cross

involves the study of a single characteristic

·         morula

a solid ball of cells formed from a zygote by mitosis

·         motor (or efferent) neuron

takes a message from the CNS to a muscle or a gland

·         mutagens

agents that cause mutations

·         mutation

a spontaneous (or sudden) change in the amount or structure of DNA

·         mycelium

a (usually) visible mass of hyphae

·         natural active immunity

occurs when a pathogen enters the body in the normal way (i.e. when you get an infection)

·         natural passive immunity

occurs when a child gets antibodies from its mother

·         natural selection

the process by which those organisms with genetically controlled characteristics that allow them to be well adapted to their environments will survive and reproduce to pass on their genes to following generations

·         natural vegetative propagation

involves forming new plants from a stem, root, leaf or bud

·         negative tropism

occurs when the growth is away from the stimulus

·         neuron (or neurone)

a nerve cell

·         nitrification

the conversion of ammonia and ammonium compounds to nitrite and then to nitrate

·         nitrogen fixation

the conversion of nitrogen gas into ammonia, ammonium or nitrate

·         node

the point on a stem at which a leaf is attached

·         non-endospermic seed

has no endosperm when fully formed

·         nutrient recycling

the way in which elements (such as carbon and nitrogen) are exchanged between the living and non-living components of an ecosystem

·         nutrition

the way organisms obtain and use food

·         obligate parasite

can only take its food from a live host

·         observation

when something is noticed

·         omnivores

animals that feed on plants and animals. Examples are humans, badgers and hedgehogs.

·         open circulatory system

blood leaves blood vessels and flows around the cells of the animal’s body before re-entering blood vessels again

·         optimum pH

the pH value at which the enzyme works best

·         organ

a structure composed of a number of tissues that work together to carry out one or more functions

·         organ system

a number of organs working together to carry out one or more functions

·         organisation

living things are composed of cells, tissues, organs and organ systems

·         organism

a living thing

·         orgasm

the physical and emotional sensations experienced at the peak of sexual excitement

·         osmosis

the movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane from a region of high water concentration to a region of low water concentration

·         osteoblast

a bone-forming cell

·         osteoclast

a bone-digesting cell

·         ovulation

the release of an egg from the ovary

·         parasites

organisms that take in food from a live host and usually cause harm

·         parasitism

when two organisms of different species live in close association and one organism (the parasite) obtains its food from, and to the disadvantage of, the second organism (the host)

·         passive immunity

occurs when individuals are given antibodies that were formed by another organism

·         pathogen

an organism that causes disease

·         pathogenic bacteria

bacteria that cause disease

·         pectoral girdle

consists of the collarbone (or clavicle) and the shoulder blade (or scapula)

·         pedigree

a diagram showing the genetic history of a group of related individuals

·         pelvic girdle

composed of two halves of the hip joined to the sacrum

·         percentage cover

an estimate of the amount of ground in a quadrat covered by each species

·         peristalsis

a wave of muscular action in the walls of the alimentary canal that moves the contents along

·         pharynx

the throat

·         phenotype

the physical make-up, or appearance, of an organism

·         phospholipids

fat-like substances in which one of the fatty acids is replaced by a phosphate group or has a phosphate group added to it

·         photolysis

the splitting of water by light

·         phototropism

the change in growth of a plant in response to light, usually from one direction (i.e. unidirectional light).

·         plasma

the liquid part of blood

·         plasma B cells

produce antibodies

·         plumule

the part of the plant embryo that develops into the shoot

·         pollination

the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma of a flower from the same species

·         pollutants

harmful additions to the environment

·         pollution

any harmful addition to the environment

·         population

all the members of the same species living in an area

·         portal system

a blood pathway that begins and ends in capillaries

·         positive tropism

occurs when the growth is towards the stimulus

·         predation

the catching, killing and eating of another organism

·         predator

an organism that catches, kills and eats another organism

·         prey

the organism that is eaten by a predator

·         producers

organisms that carry out photosynthesis

·         product

the substance(s) formed by an enzyme

·         progeny

offspring that are produced

·         prokaryotic cells

do not have a nucleus or membrane-enclosed organelles

·         protoplasm

all the living parts of a cell

·         puberty

the beginning of sexual maturity

·         pulse

the alternate expansion and contraction of the arteries

·         punnett square

a grid used to show the ratio of the genotypes of the progeny in a genetic cross

·         purines

(double-ring molecules) adenine (A) and guanine (G)

·         pyramid of numbers

represents the numbers of organisms at each trophic level (or stage) in a food chain

·         pyrimidines

(single-ring molecules) thymine (T) and cytosine (C)

·         qualitative study

records the presence or absence of organisms

·         quantitative study

records the numbers of organisms that are present

·         radicle

the part of the plant embryo that develops into a root

·         reabsorption

molecules pass from the nephron back into the blood

·         recessive

the allele is prevented from being expressed by a dominant allele

·         reflex action

an automatic, involuntary, unthinking response to a stimulus

·         refractory period

a short time span after a neuron has carried an impulse during which a stimulus fails to cause a response

·         replicate

a repeat of an experiment

·         reproduction

the production of new individuals

·         response

the activity of a cell or organism as a result of a stimulus

·         root tuber

a swollen, underground root that remains dormant during winter and from which new plants may grow

·         runners

horizontal stems that run (or grow) above ground and from which new plants grow

·         saprophytes

organisms that take in food from dead organic matter

·         scientific method

a process of investigation in which problems are identified and their suggested explanations are tested by carrying out experiments

·         scramble competition

all of the competing individuals get some of the resource

·         secondary sexual characteristics

those features that distinguish males from females, apart from the sex organs themselves

·         secretion

some substances pass from the blood into the nephron

·         selectively permeable membrane

allows some but not all molecules to pass through

·         self-pollination

the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma on the same plant

·         semen

a fluid containing sperm and seminal fluid

·         sensory (or afferent) neuron

takes a message from a sense organ to the CNS

·         serum

plasma from which the clotting proteins have been removed

·         sex linkage

a characteristic is controlled by a gene on a sex (or X) chromosome

·         sexual reproduction

the union of two sex cells or gametes

·         solar energy

energy from the Sun

·         speciation

the production of new species as a result of evolution

·         species

a group of similar organisms that are capable of naturally interbreeding with each other to produce fertile offspring

·         specific defence system

attacks particular (or specific) pathogens

·         sporulation

the process of making spores

·         stamens

the male parts of the flower

·         sterile

all micro-organisms are destroyed, i.e. there is nothing living

·         stimulus

(plural: stimuli) anything that causes a reaction in an organism or in any of its parts

·         substrate

the substance with which an enzyme reacts

·         suppressor T cells

inhibit the immune response

·         symbiosis

occurs when two organisms of different species live (and have to live) in close association and at least one of them benefits

·         synapse

a region where two neurons come into close contact

·         synaptic cleft

the tiny gap between the two neurons at a synapse

·         systole

when the heart chambers contract

·         taxonomy

the science of classifying organisms

·         tendons

strong, flexible, inelastic fibres that connect muscle to bone

·         theory

a hypothesis that has been supported by many different experiments

·         thigmotropism

a change in growth of a plant in response to touch

·         threshold

the minimum stimulus needed to cause an impulse to be carried in a neuron

·         tissue

a group of similar cells that are modified (or adapted) to carry out the same function(s)

·         tissue culture

the growth of cells in or on a sterile nutrient medium outside an organism

·         transcription

the copying of a sequence of genetic bases from DNA onto messenger RNA (mRNA)

·         transformation

the uptake of DNA into a cell

·         translation

the conversion of a sequence of genetic bases on messenger RNA into a sequence of amino acids

·         transpiration

the loss (by evaporation) of water vapour from the leaves and other aerial parts of a plant

·         triplet (or codon)

a sequence of three bases in DNA (or RNA) that act as a code for an amino acid

·         trophic level

a feeding stage in a food chain

·         tropism

a change in the growth of a plant in response to an external stimulus

·         turgor (or turgor pressure)

the outward pressure of the cytoplasm and vacuole against the cell wall of a plant

 ·         ultrastructure

the detail of the structure as seen using an electron microscope

 ·         vaccination

the administration (usually by injection) of a non-disease-causing dose of a pathogen (or its toxin) to stimulate the production of antibodies

·         vaccine

a non-disease-causing dose of a pathogen (or its toxin), which triggers the production of antibodies

·         valves

control the direction of blood flow

·         variable

a factor that may change in an experiment

·         variation (within a species)

in a group of successfully interbreeding organisms the individual members show different characteristics

·         vegetative propagation (or vegetative reproduction)

asexual reproduction in plants

·         venation

the pattern of veins in a leaf

·         woody plants

contain wood (or lignin)

[mylcnotes-blog-blog]

Chemistry: Stoichiometry

How to calculate the percentage of each element in a compound

Example

Find the percentage of nitrogen in (i) NH₃ (ii) (NH₄)₂SO₄

(i) Ar of N =14

   Mr of NH₃ = 17

  ⇒ % of N in NH₃= ¹⁴/₁₇ x 100 = 82.35%

(ii) Ar of N = 14

   2 atoms of N ⇒ 28

   Mr of (NH₄)₂SO₄ = ²⁸/₁₃₂ x 100 = 21.21%

The empirical formula of a compound is the formula which gives the simplest whole number ratio of the elements in the compound.

How to calculate the empirical formula of a compound from its percentage composition

Example

Glucose contains 40% carbon 6.67% hydrogen and 53.33% oxygen by mass. Find its empirical formula.

Note: Divide the Simplest Ratio by the smallest number of the Ar which is 33.3.

        ∴ Empirical Formula = C₁H₂O₁

2005 - HL - Section B - Question 4. - (h)

When 3.175 g of copper reacts with chlorine gas 6.725 g of copper chloride is formed. Find by calculation the empirical formula of the chloride.

Mass of chlorine = 6.725g - 3.175g = 3.55g of Cl.

No. of moles of Cu = 3.175/63.5 = 0.05

No. of moles of Cl = 3.55/35.5 = 0.01

0.05 : 0.1

1 : 2

Cu₁Cl₂

The molecular formula of the compound is the formula that gives the actual number of each atom in the molecule.

Example

From the above data calculate the molecular formula of glucose given its Mᵣ = 180.

Mᵣ of C₁H₂O₁ = (1x12) + (2x1) + (1x16) = 30

If Mᵣ of Glucose = 180

⇒ 180/30 = 6 ⇒Molecular formula is 6 times the empirical formula.

To calculate the empirical formula of a compound given the masses of reactants and products.

Example

6.36g of copper completely reacted with chlorine gas to from 20.55g of copper chloride. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.

Mass of chlorine = 20.55 - 6.36 = 14.1

No. of moles of Cu = 6.35/63.5 = 0.1

No. of moles of Cl = 14.2/35.5 = 0.4

0.1 : 0.4

1 : 4

Cu₁Cl₄

Calculate the masses of reactants or products from balanced chemical equations

The reaction to extract iron metal from iron ore may be represented as follows:

Fe₃O₄ + 4CO --> 3Fe + 4CO₂

46.6g of Fe₃O₄ completely reacted with carbon monoxide.

Calculate

The number of moles of Fe₃O₄ used.

The volume of CO (at s.t.p.) required to react with the number of moles in (i).

The mass of iron formed in this reaction.

The number of CO₂ molecules formed in this reaction.

1. No. of moles of Fe₃O₄ = 46.4 / 232 = 0.2 moles

2. 1 mole + 4 moles -> 3 moles + 4 moles     Fe₃O₄ : CO

            1 : 4

         0.2 : 0.8

         ⇒ 0.8 moles of CO ⇒ 0.8 x 22.4 = 17.92 L of CO at s.t.p.

3. Fe₃O₄ : Fe

           1 : 3

Actual 0.2 : 0.6

          0.6 moles of Fe formed

                          ⇒ 0.6 x (Mr of Fe)

                          ⇒ 0.6 x 56 = 33.6g of Fe formed

4. Fe₃O₄ : CO₂

           1 : 4

Actual 0.2 : 0.8

         ⇒ 0.8 moles of CO₂ poduced

              0.8 moles x 6 ×1023  = 4.8×1023

The Limiting Reactant

The limiting reactant is the reactant that determines the amount of product formed.

The reactant that is present along with the limiting reactant is said to be in excess.

Example

A student carries out an experiment in which some copper was added to sulfuric acid. The following reaction occurred:

Cu + H₂SO₄ --> CuO + H₂O + SO₂

In this experiment 6.35g of copper were added to 7.84g of H₂SO₄. Find the volume of SO₂ formed at s.t.p.

No. of moles of Cu = 0.1

H₂SO₄ = 7.84 / 98 = 0.08

1 mole + 1 mole -> 1 mole + 1 mole + 1 mole (from the formula)

1 mole of Cu will completely react with 1 mole of H₂SO₄ from the equation.

However we have 0.1 moles of copper and 0.08 moles of H₂SO₄

              ⇒ limiting reactant is H₂SO₄ as there is less.

              ⇒ Cu is in excess.

From the equation H₂SO₄ : SO₂

                                      1 : 1

   Actual                     0.08 : 0.08

            ⇒ 0.08 moles of SO₂ produced

At s.t.p. 0.08 x 22.4 L = 1.792 L of SO₂ formed

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ENGLISH (OL) - SparkNotes: A Doll's House by Henrik Ibsen

Note: These notes are from SparkNotes.com

GENERAL INFO

CONTEXT

Henrik Ibsen, considered by many to be the father of modern prose drama, was born in Skien, Norway, on March 20, 1828. He was the second of six children. Ibsen’s father was a prominent merchant, but he went bankrupt when Ibsen was eight years old, so Ibsen spent much of his early life living in poverty. From 1851 to 1864, he worked in theaters in Bergen and in what is now Oslo (then called Christiania). At age twenty-one, Ibsen wrote his first play, a five-act tragedy called Catiline. Like much of his early work, Catiline was written in verse.

In 1858, Ibsen married Suzannah Thoreson, and eventually had one son with her. Ibsen felt that, rather than merely live together, husband and wife should live as equals, free to become their own human beings. (This belief can be seen clearly in A Doll’s House.) Consequently, Ibsen’s critics attacked him for failing to respect the institution of marriage. Like his private life, Ibsen’s writing tended to stir up sensitive social issues, and some corners of Norwegian society frowned upon his work. Sensing criticism in Oslo about not only his work but also his private life, Ibsen moved to Italy in 1864 with the support of a traveling grant and a stipend from the Norwegian government. He spent the next twenty-seven years living abroad, mostly in Italy and Germany.

Ibsen’s early years as a playwright were not lucrative, but he did gain valuable experience during this time. In 1866, Ibsen published his first major theatrical success, a lyric drama called Brand. He followed it with another well-received verse play, Peer Gynt. These two works helped solidify Ibsen’s reputation as one of the premier Norwegian dramatists of his era. In 1879, while living in Italy, Ibsen published his masterpiece, A Doll’s House. Unlike Peer Gynt and Brand, A Doll’s House was written in prose. It is widely considered a landmark in the development of what soon became a highly prevalent genre of theater—realism, which strives to portray life accurately and shuns idealized visions of it. In A Doll’s House, Ibsen employs the themes and structures of classical tragedy while writing in prose about everyday, unexceptional people. A Doll’s House also manifests Ibsen’s concern for women’s rights, and for human rights in general.

Ibsen followed A Doll’s House with two additional plays written in an innovative, realistic mode: Ghosts, in 1881, and An Enemy of the People, in 1882. Both were successes. Ibsen began to gain international recognition, and his works were produced across Europe and translated into many different languages.

In his later work, Ibsen moved away from realistic drama to tackle questions of a psychological and subconscious nature. Accordingly, symbols began to gain prominence in his plays. Among the works he wrote in this symbolist period are The Wild Duck (1884) and Hedda Gabler (1890). Hedda Gabler was the last play Ibsen wrote while living abroad. In 1891, he returned to Oslo. His later dramas include The Master Builder (1892) and Little Eyolf (1896). Eventually, a crippling sickness afflicted Ibsen and prevented him from writing. He died on May 23, 1906.

A Note on the Title

Though most English translations of the play are titled A Doll’s House, some scholars believe that “A Doll House” is a more accurate translation of the original Norwegian. They feel that it is more suggestive of the doll-like qualities of the entire cast of characters. This SparkNote preserves the more common title—A Doll’s House—for consistency.

PLOT OVERVIEW

A Doll’s House opens on Christmas Eve. Nora Helmer enters her well-furnished living room—the setting of the entire play—carrying several packages. Torvald Helmer, Nora’s husband, comes out of his study when he hears her arrive. He greets her playfully and affectionately, but then chides her for spending so much money on Christmas gifts. Their conversation reveals that the Helmers have had to be careful with money for many years, but that Torvald has recently obtained a new position at the bank where he works that will afford them a more comfortable lifestyle.

Helene, the maid, announces that the Helmers’ dear friend Dr. Rank has come to visit. At the same time, another visitor has arrived, this one unknown. To Nora’s great surprise, Kristine Linde, a former school friend, comes into the room. The two have not seen each other for years, but Nora mentions having read that Mrs. Linde’s husband passed away a few years earlier. Mrs. Linde tells Nora that when her husband died, she was left with no money and no children. Nora tells Mrs. Linde about her first year of marriage to Torvald. She explains that they were very poor and both had to work long hours. Torvald became sick, she adds, and the couple had to travel to Italy so that Torvald could recover.

Nora inquires further about Mrs. Linde’s life, and Mrs. Linde explains that for years she had to care for her sick mother and her two younger brothers. She states that her mother has passed away, though, and that the brothers are too old to need her. Instead of feeling relief, Mrs. Linde says she feels empty because she has no occupation; she hopes that Torvald may be able to help her obtain employment. Nora promises to speak to Torvald and then reveals a great secret to Mrs. Linde—without Torvald’s knowledge, Nora illegally borrowed money for the trip that she and Torvald took to Italy; she told Torvald that the money had come from her father. For years, Nora reveals, she has worked and saved in secret, slowly repaying the debt, and soon it will be fully repaid.

Krogstad, a low-level employee at the bank where Torvald works, arrives and proceeds into Torvald’s study. Nora reacts uneasily to Krogstad’s presence, and Dr. Rank, coming out of the study, says Krogstad is “morally sick.” Once he has finished meeting with Krogstad, Torvald comes into the living room and says that he can probably hire Mrs. Linde at the bank. Dr. Rank, Torvald, and Mrs. Linde then depart, leaving Nora by herself. Nora’s children return with their nanny, Anne-Marie, and Nora plays with them until she notices Krogstad’s presence in the room. The two converse, and Krogstad is revealed to be the source of Nora’s secret loan.

Krogstad states that Torvald wants to fire him from his position at the bank and alludes to his own poor reputation. He asks Nora to use her influence to ensure that his position remains secure. When she refuses, Krogstad points out that he has in his possession a contract that contains Nora’s forgery of her father’s signature. Krogstad blackmails Nora, threatening to reveal her crime and to bring shame and disgrace on both Nora and her husband if she does not prevent Torvald from firing him. Krogstad leaves, and when Torvald returns, Nora tries to convince him not to fire Krogstad, but Torvald will hear nothing of it. He declares Krogstad an immoral man and states that he feels physically ill in the presence of such people.

Act Two opens on the following day, Christmas. Alone, Nora paces her living room, filled with anxiety. Mrs. Linde arrives and helps sew Nora’s costume for the ball that Nora will be attending at her neighbors’ home the following evening. Nora tells Mrs. Linde that Dr. Rank has a mortal illness that he inherited from his father. Nora’s suspicious behavior leads Mrs. Linde to guess that Dr. Rank is the source of Nora’s loan. Nora denies Mrs. Linde’s charge but refuses to reveal the source of her distress. Torvald arrives, and Nora again begs him to keep Krogstad employed at the bank, but again Torvald refuses. When Nora presses him, he admits that Krogstad’s moral behavior isn’t all that bothers him—he dislikes Krogstad’s overly familiar attitude. Torvald and Nora argue until Torvald sends the maid to deliver Krogstad’s letter of dismissal.

Torvald leaves. Dr. Rank arrives and tells Nora that he knows he is close to death. She attempts to cheer him up and begins to flirt with him. She seems to be preparing to ask him to intervene on her behalf in her struggle with Torvald. Suddenly, Dr. Rank reveals to Nora that he is in love with her. In light of this revelation, Nora refuses to ask Dr. Rank for anything.

Once Dr. Rank leaves, Krogstad arrives and demands an explanation for his dismissal. He wants respectability and has changed the terms of the blackmail: he now insists to Nora that not only that he be rehired at the bank but that he be rehired in a higher position. He then puts a letter detailing Nora’s debt and forgery in the -Helmers’ letterbox. In a panic, Nora tells Mrs. Linde everything, and Mrs. Linde instructs Nora to delay Torvald from opening the letter as long as possible while she goes to speak with Krogstad. In order to distract Torvald from the letterbox, Nora begins to practice the tarantella she will perform at that evening’s costume party. In her agitated emotional state, she dances wildly and violently, displeasing Torvald. Nora manages to make Torvald promise not to open his mail until after she performs at the party. Mrs. Linde soon returns and says that she has left Krogstad a note but that he will be gone until the following evening.

The next night, as the costume party takes place upstairs, Krogstad meets Mrs. Linde in the Helmers’ living room. Their conversation reveals that the two had once deeply in love, but Mrs. Linde left Krogstad for a wealthier man who would enable her to support her family. She tells Krogstad that now that she is free of her own familial obligations and wishes to be with Krogstad and care for his children. Krogstad is overjoyed and says he will demand his letter back before Torvald can read it and learn Nora’s secret. Mrs. Linde, however, insists he leave the letter, because she believes both Torvald and Nora will be better off once the truth has been revealed.

Soon after Krogstad’s departure, Nora and Torvald enter, back from the costume ball. After saying goodnight to Mrs. Linde, Torvald tells Nora how desirable she looked as she danced. Dr. Rank, who was also at the party and has come to say goodnight, promptly interrupts Torvald’s advances on Nora. After Dr. Rank leaves, Torvald finds in his letterbox two of Dr. Rank’s visiting cards, each with a black cross above the name. Nora knows Dr. Rank’s cards constitute his announcement that he will soon die, and she informs Torvald of this fact. She then insists that Torvald read Krogstad’s letter.

Torvald reads the letter and is outraged. He calls Nora a hypocrite and a liar and complains that she has ruined his happiness. He declares that she will not be allowed to raise their children. Helene then brings in a letter. Torvald opens it and discovers that Krogstad has returned Nora’s contract (which contains the forged signature). Overjoyed, Torvald attempts to dismiss his past insults, but his harsh words have triggered something in Nora. She declares that despite their eight years of marriage, they do not understand one another. Torvald, Nora asserts, has treated her like a “doll” to be played with and admired. She decides to leave Torvald, declaring that she must “make sense of [her]self and everything around her.” She walks out, slamming the door behind her.

CHARACTER LIST

In some editions of A Doll’s House, the speech prompts refer to the character of Torvald Helmer as “Torvald;” in others, they refer to him as “Helmer.” Similarly, in some editions, Mrs. Linde’s first name is spelled “Christine” rather than “Kristine.”

Nora -  The protagonist of the play and the wife of Torvald Helmer. Nora initially seems like a playful, naïve child who lacks knowledge of the world outside her home. She does have some worldly experience, however, and the small acts of rebellion in which she engages indicate that she is not as innocent or happy as she appears. She comes to see her position in her marriage with increasing clarity and finds the strength to free herself from her oppressive situation.

Read an in-depth analysis of Nora.

Torvald Helmer -  Nora’s husband. Torvald delights in his new position at the bank, just as he delights in his position of authority as a husband. He treats Nora like a child, in a manner that is both kind and patronizing. He does not view Nora as an equal but rather as a plaything or doll to be teased and admired. In general, Torvald is overly concerned with his place and status in society, and he allows his emotions to be swayed heavily by the prospect of society’s respect and the fear of society’s scorn.

Read an in-depth analysis of Torvald Helmer.

Krogstad -  A lawyer who went to school with Torvald and holds a subordinate position at Torvald’s bank. Krogstad’s character is contradictory: though his bad deeds seem to stem from a desire to protect his children from scorn, he is perfectly willing to use unethical tactics to achieve his goals. His willingness to allow Nora to suffer is despicable, but his claims to feel sympathy for her and the hard circumstances of his own life compel us to sympathize with him to some degree.

Read an in-depth analysis of Krogstad.

Mrs. Linde -  Nora’s childhood friend. Kristine Linde is a practical, down-to-earth woman, and her sensible worldview highlights Nora’s somewhat childlike outlook on life. Mrs. Linde’s account of her life of poverty underscores the privileged nature of the life that Nora leads. Also, we learn that Mrs. Linde took responsibility for her sick parent, whereas Nora abandoned her father when he was ill.

Dr. Rank -  Torvald’s best friend. Dr. Rank stands out as the one character in the play who is by and large unconcerned with what others think of him. He is also notable for his stoic acceptance of his fate. Unlike Torvald and Nora, Dr. Rank admits to the diseased nature (literally, in his case) of his life. For the most part, he avoids talking to Torvald about his imminent death out of respect for Torvald’s distaste for ugliness.

Bob, Emmy, and Ivar -  Nora and Torvald’s three small children. In her brief interaction with her children, Nora shows herself to be a loving mother. When she later refuses to spend time with her children because she fears she may morally corrupt them, Nora acts on her belief that the quality of parenting strongly influences a child’s development.

Anne-Marie -  The Helmers’ nanny. Though Ibsen doesn’t fully develop her character, Anne-Marie seems to be a kindly woman who has genuine affection for Nora. She had to give up her own daughter in order to take the nursing job offered by Nora’s father. Thus, she shares with Nora and Mrs. Linde the act of sacrificing her own happiness out of economic necessity.

Nora’s father -  Though Nora’s father is dead before the action of the play begins, the characters refer to him throughout the play. Though she clearly loves and admires her father, Nora also comes to blame him for contributing to her subservient position in life.

ANALYSIS OF MAJOR CHARACTERS

Nora Helmer

At the beginning of A Doll’s House, Nora seems completely happy. She responds affectionately to Torvald’s teasing, speaks with excitement about the extra money his new job will provide, and takes pleasure in the company of her children and friends. She does not seem to mind her doll-like existence, in which she is coddled, pampered, and patronized.

As the play progresses, Nora reveals that she is not just a “silly girl,” as Torvald calls her. That she understands the business details related to the debt she incurred taking out a loan to preserve Torvald’s health indicates that she is intelligent and possesses capacities beyond mere wifehood. Her description of her years of secret labor undertaken to pay off her debt shows her fierce determination and ambition. Additionally, the fact that she was willing to break the law in order to ensure Torvald’s health shows her courage.

Krogstad’s blackmail and the trauma that follows do not change Nora’s nature; they open her eyes to her unfulfilled and underappreciated potential. “I have been performing tricks for you, Torvald,” she says during her climactic confrontation with him. Nora comes to realize that in addition to her literal dancing and singing tricks, she has been putting on a show throughout her marriage. She has pretended to be someone she is not in order to fulfill the role that Torvald, her father, and society at large have expected of her.

Torvald’s severe and selfish reaction after learning of Nora’s deception and forgery is the final catalyst for Nora’s awakening. But even in the first act, Nora shows that she is not totally unaware that her life is at odds with her true personality. She defies Torvald in small yet meaningful ways—by eating macaroons and then lying to him about it, for instance. She also swears, apparently just for the pleasure she derives from minor rebellion against societal standards. As the drama unfolds, and as Nora’s awareness of the truth about her life grows, her need for rebellion escalates, culminating in her walking out on her husband and children to find independence.

Torvald Helmer

Torvald embraces the belief that a man’s role in marriage is to protect and guide his wife. He clearly enjoys the idea that Nora needs his guidance, and he interacts with her as a father would. He instructs her with trite, moralistic sayings, such as: “A home that depends on loans and debt is not beautiful because it is not free.” He is also eager to teach Nora the dance she performs at the costume party. Torvald likes to envision himself as Nora’s savior, asking her after the party, “[D]o you know that I’ve often wished you were facing some terrible dangers so that I could risk life and limb, risk everything, for your sake?”

Although Torvald seizes the power in his relationship with Nora and refers to her as a “girl,” it seems that Torvald is actually the weaker and more childlike character. Dr. Rank’s explanation for not wanting Torvald to enter his sickroom—”Torvald is so fastidious, he cannot face up to anything ugly”—suggests that Dr. Rank feels Torvald must be sheltered like a child from the realities of the world. Furthermore, Torvald reveals himself to be childishly petty at times. His real objection to working with Krogstad stems not from -deficiencies in Krogstad’s moral character but, rather, Krogstad’s overly friendly and familiar behavior. Torvald’s decision to fire Krogstad stems ultimately from the fact that he feels threatened and offended by Krogstad’s failure to pay him the proper respect.

Torvald is very conscious of other people’s perceptions of him and of his standing in the community. His explanation for rejecting Nora’s request that Krogstad be kept on at the office—that retaining Krogstad would make him “a laughing stock before the entire staff”—shows that he prioritizes his reputation over his wife’s desires. Torvald further demonstrates his deep need for society’s respect in his reaction to Nora’s deception. Although he says that Nora has ruined his happiness and will not be allowed to raise the children, he insists that she remain in the house because his chief concern is saving “the appearance” of their household.

Krogstad

Krogstad is the antagonist in A Doll’s House, but he is not necessarily a villain. Though his willingness to allow Nora’s torment to continue is cruel, Krogstad is not without sympathy for her. As he says, “Even money-lenders, hacks, well, a man like me, can have a little of what you call feeling, you know.” He visits Nora to check on her, and he discourages her from committing suicide. Moreover, Krogstad has reasonable motives for behaving as he does: he wants to keep his job at the bank in order to spare his children from the hardships that come with a spoiled reputation. Unlike Torvald, who seems to desire respect for selfish reasons, Krogstad desires it for his family’s sake.

Like Nora, Krogstad is a person who has been wronged by society, and both Nora and Krogstad have committed the same crime: forgery of signatures. Though he did break the law, Krogstad’s crime was relatively minor, but society has saddled him with the stigma of being a criminal and prohibited him from moving beyond his past. Additionally, Krogstad’s claim that his immoral behavior began when Mrs. Linde abandoned him for a man with money so she could provide for her family makes it possible for us to understand Krogstad as a victim of circumstances. One could argue that society forced Mrs. Linde away from Krogstad and thus prompted his crime. Though society’s unfair treatment of Krogstad does not justify his actions, it does align him more closely with Nora and therefore tempers our perception of him as a despicable character.

THEMES, MOTIFS & SYMBOLS

Themes

Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work.

The Sacrificial Role of Women

In A Doll’s House, Ibsen paints a bleak picture of the sacrificial role held by women of all economic classes in his society. In general, the play’s female characters exemplify Nora’s assertion (spoken to Torvald in Act Three) that even though men refuse to sacrifice their integrity, “hundreds of thousands of women have.” In order to support her mother and two brothers, Mrs. Linde found it necessary to abandon Krogstad, her true—but penniless—love, and marry a richer man. The nanny had to abandon her own child to support herself by working as Nora’s (and then as Nora’s children’s) caretaker. As she tells Nora, the nanny considers herself lucky to have found the job, since she was “a poor girl who’d been led astray.”

Though Nora is economically advantaged in comparison to the play’s other female characters, she nevertheless leads a difficult life because society dictates that Torvald be the marriage’s dominant partner. Torvald issues decrees and condescends to Nora, and Nora must hide her loan from him because she knows Torvald could never accept the idea that his wife (or any other woman) had helped save his life. Furthermore, she must work in secret to pay off her loan because it is illegal for a woman to obtain a loan without her husband’s permission. By motivating Nora’s deception, the attitudes of Torvald—and society—leave Nora vulnerable to Krogstad’s blackmail.

Nora’s abandonment of her children can also be interpreted as an act of self- sacrifice. Despite Nora’s great love for her children—manifested by her interaction with them and her great fear of corrupting them—she chooses to leave them. Nora truly believes that the nanny will be a better mother and that leaving her children is in their best interest.

Parental and Filial Obligations

Nora, Torvald, and Dr. Rank each express the belief that a parent is obligated to be honest and upstanding, because a parent’s immorality is passed on to his or her children like a disease. In fact, Dr. Rank does have a disease that is the result of his father’s depravity. Dr. Rank implies that his father’s immorality—his many affairs with women—led him to contract a venereal disease that he passed on to his son, causing Dr. Rank to suffer for his father’s misdeeds. Torvald voices the idea that one’s parents determine one’s moral character when he tells Nora, “Nearly all young criminals had lying -mothers.” He also refuses to allow Nora to interact with their children after he learns of her deceit, for fear that she will corrupt them.

Yet, the play suggests that children too are obligated to protect their parents. Nora recognized this obligation, but she ignored it, choosing to be with—and sacrifice herself for—her sick husband instead of her sick father. Mrs. Linde, on the other hand, abandoned her hopes of being with Krogstad and undertook years of labor in order to tend to her sick mother. Ibsen does not pass judgment on either woman’s decision, but he does use the idea of a child’s debt to her parent to demonstrate the complexity and reciprocal nature of familial obligations.

The Unreliability of Appearances

Over the course of A Doll’s House, appearances prove to be misleading veneers that mask the reality of the play’s characters and -situations. Our first impressions of Nora, Torvald, and Krogstad are all eventually undercut. Nora initially seems a silly, childish woman, but as the play progresses, we see that she is intelligent, motivated, and, by the play’s conclusion, a strong-willed, independent thinker. Torvald, though he plays the part of the strong, benevolent husband, reveals himself to be cowardly, petty, and selfish when he fears that Krogstad may expose him to scandal. Krogstad too reveals himself to be a much more sympathetic and merciful character than he first appears to be. The play’s climax is largely a matter of resolving identity confusion—we see Krogstad as an earnest lover, Nora as an intelligent, brave woman, and Torvald as a simpering, sad man.

Situations too are misinterpreted both by us and by the characters. The seeming hatred between Mrs. Linde and Krogstad turns out to be love. Nora’s creditor turns out to be Krogstad and not, as we and Mrs. Linde suppose, Dr. Rank. Dr. Rank, to Nora’s and our surprise, confesses that he is in love with her. The seemingly villainous Krogstad repents and returns Nora’s contract to her, while the seemingly kindhearted Mrs. Linde ceases to help Nora and forces Torvald’s discovery of Nora’s secret.

The instability of appearances within the Helmer household at the play’s end results from Torvald’s devotion to an image at the expense of the creation of true happiness. Because Torvald craves respect from his employees, friends, and wife, status and image are important to him. Any disrespect—when Nora calls him petty and when Krogstad calls him by his first name, for example—angers Torvald greatly. By the end of the play, we see that Torvald’s obsession with controlling his home’s appearance and his repeated suppression and denial of reality have harmed his family and his happiness irreparably.

Motifs

Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes.

Nora’s Definition of Freedom

Nora’s understanding of the meaning of freedom evolves over the course of the play. In the first act, she believes that she will be totally “free” as soon as she has repaid her debt, because she will have the opportunity to devote herself fully to her domestic responsibilities. After Krogstad blackmails her, however, she reconsiders her conception of freedom and questions whether she is happy in Torvald’s house, subjected to his orders and edicts. By the end of the play, Nora seeks a new kind of freedom. She wishes to be relieved of her familial obligations in order to pursue her own ambitions, beliefs, and identity.

Letters

Many of the plot’s twists and turns depend upon the writing and reading of letters, which function within the play as the subtext that reveals the true, unpleasant nature of situations obscured by Torvald and Nora’s efforts at beautification. Krogstad writes two letters: the first reveals Nora’s crime of forgery to Torvald; the second retracts his blackmail threat and returns Nora’s promissory note. The first letter, which Krogstad places in Torvald’s letterbox near the end of Act Two, represents the truth about Nora’s past and initiates the inevitable dissolution of her marriage—as Nora says immediately after Krogstad leaves it, “We are lost.” Nora’s attempts to stall Torvald from reading the letter represent her continued denial of the true nature of her marriage. The second letter releases Nora from her obligation to Krogstad and represents her release from her obligation to Torvald. Upon reading it, Torvald attempts to return to his and Nora’s previous denial of reality, but Nora recognizes that the letters have done more than expose her actions to Torvald; they have exposed the truth about Torvald’s selfishness, and she can no longer participate in the illusion of a happy marriage.

Dr. Rank’s method of communicating his imminent death is to leave his calling card marked with a black cross in Torvald’s letterbox. In an earlier conversation with Nora, Dr. Rank reveals his understanding of Torvald’s unwillingness to accept reality when he proclaims, “Torvald is so fastidious, he cannot face up to -anything ugly.” By leaving his calling card as a death notice, Dr. Rank politely attempts to keep Torvald from the “ugly” truth. Other letters include Mrs. Linde’s note to Krogstad, which initiates her -life-changing meeting with him, and Torvald’s letter of dismissal to Krogstad.

Symbols

Symbols are objects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts.

The Christmas Tree

The Christmas tree, a festive object meant to serve a decorative purpose, symbolizes Nora’s position in her household as a plaything who is pleasing to look at and adds charm to the home. There are several parallels drawn between Nora and the Christmas tree in the play. Just as Nora instructs the maid that the children cannot see the tree until it has been decorated, she tells Torvald that no one can see her in her dress until the evening of the dance. Also, at the beginning of the second act, after Nora’s psychological condition has begun to erode, the stage directions indicate that the Christmas tree is correspondingly “dishevelled.”

New Year’s Day

The action of the play is set at Christmastime, and Nora and Torvald both look forward to New Year’s as the start of a new, happier phase in their lives. In the new year, Torvald will start his new job, and he anticipates with excitement the extra money and admiration the job will bring him. Nora also looks forward to Torvald’s new job, because she will finally be able to repay her secret debt to Krogstad. By the end of the play, however, the nature of the new start that New Year’s represents for Torvald and Nora has changed dramatically. They both must become new people and face radically changed ways of living. Hence, the new year comes to mark the beginning of a truly new and different period in both their lives and their personalities.

SUMMARY & ANALYSIS

Act One

Summary

From the opening of the play to the announcement of Dr. Rank’s and Mrs. Linde’s arrivals.

It is Christmas Eve. Nora Helmer enters the house with packages and a Christmas tree. She pays the porter double what she owes him and eats some macaroons. Her husband, Torvald Helmer, comes out of his study and addresses Nora with tenderness and authority, calling her his “skylark” and his “squirrel.” Nora tells Torvald that she wants to show him what she has bought, and Torvald teases her for being a spendthrift. Nora replies that she and Torvald can afford to be extravagant, since Torvald’s new position at the bank means he will earn a large salary. Torvald replies that he will not take over that position until after the new year begins. When Nora argues that they can spend on credit until Torvald is paid, Torvald scolds her, reminding her that if something were to happen to make them unable to pay off their loan, they would be in trouble. He concludes by saying that he hates debts because “[a] home that depends on loans and debts is not beautiful because it is not free.” Nora finally acquiesces and says, “Everything as you wish, Torvald.”

Witnessing Nora’s pouty disappointment, Torvald tries to cheer up his wife by offering her money to spend for Christmas. Nora becomes enthusiastic again and thanks him profusely. She then shows him all the gifts she has purchased for their children. Torvald asks Nora what she would like for Christmas, and at first, Nora replies that she doesn’t need a gift. It becomes apparent that she is hesitant to tell Torvald what she wants, and finally she says that she would just like some money so that she can pick out the perfect thing and buy it herself.

Torvald again accuses Nora of being wasteful, arguing that wastefulness with money runs in her family and that she inherited the trait from her father. But, he says, he loves his “lovely little singing bird” just the way she is, and he wouldn’t want her to change.

Torvald then asks Nora if she has given in to her sweet tooth that day. Nora vehemently denies Torvald’s suggestion and continues her denial even when Torvald specifically asks if she has eaten any macaroons. Torvald finally abandons his questions, respecting her word.

The two discuss that evening’s Christmas festivities and the invitation of Dr. Rank to dinner. Torvald says Dr. Rank knows that he is always welcome and therefore doesn’t need to be invited. Nevertheless, Torvald tells Nora, he will invite Dr. Rank when he visits that morning. Torvald and Nora then return to their discussion of how wonderful it is that Torvald has a secure income and a good job.

Torvald recalls the events of the previous Christmas, when Nora shut herself up in a room until very late every night for three weeks to make Christmas ornaments. He remarks that he had never been so bored in his life. He also emphasizes that Nora had very little to show for all of her toil when she was finished. Nora reminds her husband that she can’t be blamed for the cat getting into the room and destroying all her hard work. Torvald again expresses happiness that they are financially better off than they were before.

The doorbell rings and the maid, Helene, announces that Dr. Rank has arrived to see Torvald and that there is a lady caller as well.

Analysis

The transaction between Nora and the porter that opens A Doll’s House immediately puts the spotlight on money, which emerges as one of the forces driving the play’s conflicts as it draws lines between genders, classes, and moral standards. Though Nora owes the porter fifty øre (a Norwegian unit of currency), she gives him twice that amount, presumably because she is infused with the holiday spirit. While Nora likes to spend and allows the idea of buying presents to block out financial concerns, Torvald holds a more pragmatic view of money, jokingly calling Nora a spendthrift and telling her that she is completely foolish when it comes to financial matters.

Torvald’s assertion that Nora’s lack of understanding of money matters is the result of her gender (“Nora, my Nora, that is just like a woman”) reveals his prejudiced viewpoint on gender roles. Torvald believes a wife’s role is to beautify the home, not only through proper management of domestic life but also through proper behavior and appearance. He quickly makes it known that appearances are very important to him, and that Nora is like an ornament or trophy that serves to beautify his home and his reputation.

Torvald’s insistence on calling Nora by affectionately diminutive names evokes her helplessness and her dependence on him. The only time that Torvald calls Nora by her actual name is when he is scolding her. When he is greeting or adoring her, however, he calls her by childish animal nicknames such as “my little skylark” and “my squirrel.” By placing her within such a system of names, Torvald not only asserts his power over Nora but also dehumanizes her to a degree. When he implies that Nora is comparable to the “little birds that like to fritter money,” Torvald suggests that Nora lacks some fundamental male ability to deal properly with financial matters. Though Torvald accuses Nora of being irresponsible with money, he gives her more in order to watch her happy reaction. This act shows that Torvald amuses himself by manipulating his wife’s feelings. Nora is like Torvald’s doll—she decorates his home and pleases him by being a dependent figure with whose emotions he can toy.

In addition to being something of a doll to Torvald, Nora is also like a child to him. He shows himself to be competing with Nora’s dead father for Nora’s loyalty. In a sense, by keeping Nora dependent upon and subservient to him, Torvald plays the role of Nora’s second father. He treats her like a child, doling out money to her and attempting to instruct her in the ways of the world. Nora’s gift selections—a sword and a horse for her male children and a doll for her daughter—show that she reinforces the stereotypical gender roles that hold her in subservience to Torvald. Nora sees her daughter the same way she has likely been treated all of her life—as a doll.

Act One, continued

Summary

From the beginning of Nora’s conversation with Mrs. Linde to Nora’s promise to talk to Torvald about finding Mrs. Linde work.

Nora greets the female visitor hesitantly, and the visitor realizes that Nora does not remember her. Finally, Nora recognizes the woman as her childhood friend, Kristine Linde and remarks that Mrs. Linde has changed since they last met nine or ten years earlier. Mrs. Linde says that she has just arrived by steamer that day. Nora remarks that Mrs. Linde looks paler and thinner than she remembered and apologizes profusely for not writing three years earlier, when she read in the paper that Mrs. Linde’s husband had died.

Nora asks if Mrs. Linde’s husband left her very much money, and Mrs. Linde admits that he did not. Nora then asks whether he left her any children. When Mrs. Linde says that he didn’t, Nora asks once more if he left her “nothing at all then?” Mrs. Linde says that he did not leave her even “an ounce of grief,” but this sentiment is lost on Nora. After commenting how awful life must be for Mrs. Linde, Nora begins to talk about her three children and then apologizes for babbling on about her own life instead of listening to Mrs. Linde. First, though, she feels that she must tell Mrs. Linde about Torvald’s new position at the bank, and Mrs. Linde responds enthusiastically.

When Mrs. Linde comments that it would be nice to have enough money, Nora talks about how she and Torvald will have “pots and pots” of money. Nora tells Mrs. Linde that life hasn’t always been so happy, however. Nora once had to work as well—doing tasks like sewing and crocheting. Torvald also had to take on more than one job, but he became ill, and the entire family had to go south to Italy because of Torvald’s condition. Nora explains that the trip to Italy was quite expensive and that she obtained the money from her father. The family left for Italy at just about the time that Nora’s father died. Nora excitedly says that her husband has been completely well since returning from Italy and that the children are very healthy too. She apologizes again for babbling on about her happiness and monopolizing the conversation.

Mrs. Linde describes how she married a husband of whom she was not particularly fond. Because her mother was confined to bed, Mrs. Linde had to look after her two younger brothers. She says she feels it would not have been justifiable to turn down her suitor’s proposal and the money that would come with marriage to him. When her husband died, however, his business collapsed, and she was left penniless. After three years spent working odd jobs to support her family, Mrs. Linde is finally free, because her mother died and her brothers are grown. She adds that with no one dependent upon her, her life is even sadder, because she has no one for whom to live. She reveals that she came to town to find some office work.

When Nora protests that Mrs. Linde ought not work, Mrs. Linde snaps that Nora could not possibly understand the hard work that she has had to do. She quickly apologizes for her anger, saying that her predicament has made her bitter. She explains that because she has no one for whom to work, she must look after only herself, which has made her selfish. She admits that she is happy at the news of Torvald’s new job because of the implications it could have for her personal interests. Nora promises to talk to her husband about helping Mrs. Linde.

Analysis

Nora’s first conversation with Mrs. Linde plays a key role in establishing Nora’s childlike, self-centered, and insensitive character. Though she purports to be interested in Mrs. Linde’s problems, Nora repeatedly turns the conversation back to her own life with Torvald. Nora’s self-centeredness is further demonstrated in her revelation that she failed to write to Mrs. Linde after her husband passed away. It is only now, three years after the fact, that Nora expresses her sympathy; up to this point, she has made no effort to think beyond herself, and the fact that she does so now seems only a matter of polite reflex. Like an impetuous child, Nora does not filter her thoughts, expressing what comes to mind without regard for what is and what is not appropriate, as when she tactlessly comments that Mrs. Linde’s looks have declined over the years. Though she recognizes that Mrs. Linde is poor, she unabashedly delights in the fact that she and Torvald will soon have “pots and pots” of money. She does not recognize that such comments might be hurtful to her old friend.

From a structural point of view, Nora, as the drama’s protagonist, must develop over the course of the play. Because her first conversation with Mrs. Linde shows Nora to be childlike in her understanding of the world, it becomes apparent that Nora’s development will involve education, maturation, and the shedding of her seeming naïveté. Whereas Nora clings to romantic notions about love and marriage, Mrs. Linde has a more realistic understanding of marriage, gained from her experience of being left with “not even an ounce of grief” after her husband’s death. Nora’s incredulity at Mrs. Linde’s remark indicates to Mrs. Linde, and to us, that Nora is sheltered and somewhat unsophisticated. The thread between Nora’s initial interactions with Torvald and Mrs. Linde is the tension between Nora’s childish nature and her need to grow out of it.

As someone who has experienced an existence that is anything but doll-like, Mrs. Linde seems poised to be Nora’s teacher and guide on her journey to maturity. Mrs. Linde recounts hardship after hardship and sacrifice after sacrifice—a far cry from the pampering that Nora receives from Torvald. At the same time, both Mrs. Linde’s and Nora’s marriages involve sacrificing themselves to another in exchange for money. Nora becomes her husband’s plaything and delights in the comforts he provides her, while Mrs. Linde marries her husband for money so that she can support her sick mother and dependent younger brothers. Again and again in A Doll’s House, women sacrifice their personal desires, their ambitions, and their dignity. While Nora marries for her own welfare, however, Mrs. Linde does so for the welfare of her family.

Unlike many of the dramatists who came before him, Ibsen doesn’t portray rich, powerful, or socially significant people in his plays. Rather, he populates his dramas with ordinary middle-class characters. Ibsen’s language too is commonplace. Though his dialogue is uncomplicated and without rhetorical flourish, it subtly conveys more than it seems to. For instance, Nora’s insensitivity to Mrs. Linde’s plight manifests itself when she speaks of her three lovely children immediatelyafter learning that Mrs. Linde has none. That Ibsen’s dialogue is apparently simple—yet full of loaded -subtext—sets Ibsen’s drama apart from earlier and contemporary verse plays.

Act One, continued

O]f course, a time will come when Torvald is not as devoted to me, not quite so happy when I dance for him, and dress for him, and play with him.

(See Important Quotations Explained)

Summary

From Mrs. Linde’s accusation that Nora is still a child to the exit of Dr. Rank, Torvald, and Mrs. Linde

Mrs. Linde comments that Nora is still a child because she has known no hardship in her life. Nora becomes indignant and says that she too has “something to be proud and happy about.” She goes on to tell Mrs. Linde that she saved her husband’s life when he was sick. The doctors urged them to go south for a while but cautioned that the gravity of Torvald’s illness must not be revealed to him—he was in danger of dying. Nora tried to convince Torvald that they should go south, but he wouldn’t hear of borrowing money for that purpose. Nora procured money and told Torvald that her father gave it to them, though she really raised it herself. Nora’s father died before Torvald had a chance to find out that the money didn’t come from him. Nora has kept the source of the money a secret because she doesn’t want his “man’s pride” to be hurt. Mrs. Linde is doubtful that Nora is right to keep her actions a secret, but Nora replies that Torvald “would be so ashamed and humiliated if he thought he owed me anything.”

Nora explains that she has been using her allowance ever since the trip to Italy to pay her debt. She also reveals that she took on some copying work the previous winter. This work (and not -ornament-making) was the real reason that she closed herself up in a room during the weeks before the previous Christmas. Nora abruptly shifts the subject from the past to the future and happily exclaims that after the new year she will have paid off her debt completely and then will be “free” to fulfill her responsibilities as a wife and mother without impediment.

A man comes to the door wishing to speak with Torvald. Nora’s displeasure at seeing the man is apparent. Mrs. Linde is also startled upon seeing the man and turns away. The man, named Krogstad, has come to speak with Torvald about bank business. Nora tells Mrs. Linde that Krogstad is a lawyer, and Mrs. Linde reveals that she knew him when he was living in her part of the country. Nora says that Krogstad is a widower who had an unhappy marriage and many children. Mrs. Linde replies, “He has many business interests, they say,” and Nora responds that she doesn’t want to think about business because it is a “bore.”

Dr. Rank leaves the study when Krogstad goes in. Dr. Rank and Nora have a brief conversation, and Dr. Rank calls Krogstad “morally sick.” He also informs the women that Krogstad has a small, subordinate position at the bank. Nora offers a macaroon to Dr. Rank, who says that he thought macaroons were banned in the Helmer house. Nora lies and says that Mrs. Linde brought them and then explains to Mrs. Linde that Torvald has “outlawed” macaroons because he thinks they are bad for Nora’s teeth. Torvald exits his study, and Nora introduces Mrs. Linde to him. Nora pleads with Torvald to give Mrs. Linde a job, and he says that there might possibly be an opening for her. Dr. Rank, Torvald, and Mrs. Linde then leave together, all of them planning to come back that evening for the Christmas festivities.

To be free, absolutely free. To spend time playing with the children. To have a clean, beautiful house, the way Torvald likes it.

(See Important Quotations Explained)

Analysis

Whereas the conversation between Torvald and Nora at the beginning of A Doll’s House seems one between a happy, honest couple with nothing to hide, in the latter half of Act One we see that the Torvald household is full of secrets and deception. The most minor example of this deception is Nora’s lying about the macaroons. Because eating a macaroon seems like such a trivial matter, one can argue that lying about it is highly insignificant. Yet one can also argue that the trivial nature of eating the macaroon is the very thing that makes the lie so troubling. Indeed, the need to lie about something so insignificant—Nora lies twice about the macaroons, once to Torvald and once to Dr. Rank—speaks to the depths of both her guilt and the tension in her relationship with Torvald.

A far more serious case of deception concerns the loan Nora illicitly acquired in order to save Torvald’s life. Though this deception is of far greater magnitude than the lies about the macaroons and involves a breach of law (Nora is guilty of forgery), we can understand and forgive Nora for her actions because she is motivated by noble and selfless intent. In both instances of deception, Nora lies because of Torvald’s unfair stereotypes about gender roles. If Torvald could accept his wife’s help and didn’t feel the need to have control over her every movement, Nora would not have to lie to him.

When Nora suggests that Torvald find Mrs. Linde a job, Torvald again shows his biases concerning women’s proper roles in society by immediately assuming that Mrs. Linde is a widow. Torvald’s assumption shows that he believes a proper married woman should not work outside the home. Also, as Torvald departs with Mrs. Linde, he says to her, “Only a mother could bear to be here [in the house],” suggesting that any woman who wants a job must not have children. These words contain a veiled expression of pride, since Torvald is pleased that his home is fit only for what he believes to be the proper kind of woman: a mother and wife, like Nora.

After Nora reveals her secret to Mrs. Linde, Nora’s and Mrs. Linde’s versions of femininity slowly begin to converge. With knowledge of her noble act, we see Nora’s character deepen, and we see that she possesses more maturity and determination than we previously thought. What prompts Nora to reveal her secret about having saved Torvald’s life by raising the money for their trip abroad is Mrs. Linde’s contention that Nora has never known hard work. Although Mrs. Linde’s accusation of Nora facilitates the pair’s reconciliation, what motivates the two women here is unclear. Ibsen does not explicitly reveal whether Mrs. Linde’s irritation at Nora stems from envy, annoyance, or even concern. Similarly, Nora’s defensive response could signify that she is hurt, competitive, or simply itching to tell someone her secret. All that is clear is that both Mrs. Linde and Nora are proud to have helped those they love by sacrificing for them. Their common experience of sacrifice for others unites them even though they come from different economic spheres and forms the basis for their rekindled friendship.

Act One, continued

Summary

From the entrance of Nora’s children to the end of Act One.

The nanny, Anne-Marie, enters with Nora’s three children, and Nora and the children play happily. Krogstad enters and startles Nora, who screams. He apologizes and says that the door was open, and Nora replies that Torvald is not at home. Krogstad says that he has come to talk with her, not with Torvald. He asks whether the woman walking with Torvald is Mrs. Linde, and Nora responds in the affirmative. When Krogstad explains that he used to know Mrs. Linde, Nora tells him that she already knew, and Krogstad says that he assumed that she did. He then asks if the bank will employ Mrs. Linde, and Nora brags that it will because, even though she is a woman, Nora has a great deal of influence over her husband.

Krogstad then requests that Nora use her influence on his behalf. Nora is bewildered, because she does not know why Krogstad’s position at the bank would be in jeopardy. Krogstad seems to think that Nora knows more than she is letting on and hints that he thinks the hiring of Mrs. Linde will bring about his dismissal. Suddenly, Nora revokes her earlier claims and denies that she has any influence. Krogstad says that as a bank manager, Torvald, “like all married men . . . can be swayed,” and Nora accuses Krogstad of insulting her husband.

Nora assures Krogstad that she will repay all her loans by the new year and asks him to leave her alone. Krogstad implies that he isn’t concerned only about the money; his position at the bank is very important to him. He speaks of a “bad mistake” he committed, which ruined his reputation and made it very difficult for his career to advance. Thus, he tells Nora, he began doing “the business that you know about.” Krogstad announces that he wishes to rebuild his reputation and to behave properly for the sake of his sons, who are growing up. His small bank job, he explains, was the beginning of this rebuilding of his life and reputation. He then threatens Nora, saying that he has “the power to force” her to help him.

Nora replies that though it would be unpleasant for her husband to find out that she had borrowed from Krogstad, Torvald would pay off the loan, and dealings with Krogstad would be terminated. In addition, Krogstad would lose his job. Krogstad says that Nora has other things to worry about: he has figured out that Nora forged her father’s signature on the promissory note. Krogstad informs Nora that her forgery is a serious offense, similar to the one that sullied his reputation in the first place. Nora dismisses Krogstad’s suggestion, saying that she should not be faulted because her motives were honorable and pure, but Krogstad reminds her of the law. He threatens her once more and then leaves. The children return, but Nora sends them away. Though she is clearly disturbed by what has just happened, she makes an attempt to decorate the tree.

Torvald returns and mentions that he noticed Krogstad departing. He guesses that Krogstad has asked Nora to speak on his behalf. After some hesitation, Nora admits as much. Torvald scolds Nora for speaking to Krogstad and warns her not to lie to him (Torvald). Nora changes the subject and asks Torvald if he will help her find the perfect costume for the party. Nora asks what Krogstad did to warrant his bad reputation. Torvald responds that he forged signatures. Nora asks what his motives were in the matter. Torvald says he would never condemn a man for one indiscretion, but the real problem with Krogstad was that he refused to admit what he had done and take his punishment. Torvald talks about how lying and deceit corrupts a household’s children: “nearly all young criminals have had lying mothers.” Torvald exits, and the nanny enters and says the children badly want to see their mother. Nora vehemently refuses, and the nanny departs. Terrified, Nora mutters about the thought of corrupting her children. In the next breath, however, she rejects the idea that such corruption could occur.

Analysis

As Act One draws to a close, we see Nora wrestling with new problems of fear, guilt, and wrongdoing. Her conversation with Krogstad reveals Krogstad as the source of the loan Nora used to pay for her family’s trip to Italy. Although the taking of the loan constitutes a crime because she forged a signature to get it, Nora takes pride in it because it remains one of the few independent actions she has ever taken. Nora is also proud that she is able to influence her husband, as she boasts to Krogstad. Nora’s boasts about influencing Torvald reveal her desire to feel useful and important. That Nora points out that even though she is a woman Krogstad should respect her influence over bank policy suggests that she senses and fears rejection of her significance on account of her gender. Perhaps she must combat this idea even in her own mind.

Although Nora holds some influence over Torvald, her power is extremely limited. Paradoxically, when Krogstad asks Nora to exert this influence on Torvald on his behalf, Nora perceives his request to be an insult to her husband. Because Krogstad’s statement implies that Torvald fails to conform to the societal belief that the husband should be responsible for all financial and business matters by letting Nora sway him, Nora recognizes it as an insult to Torvald for not being a proper husband. Torvald, for his part, believes that Nora is completely useless when it comes to matters of business, but he agrees to help find a job for Mrs. Linde in order to make his “little squirrel” happy. He also shows that he believes parenting is a mother’s responsibility when he asserts that a lying mother corrupts children and turns them into criminals, suggesting that the father, while important in economic matters, is inconsequential to his children’s moral development.

Krogstad wants to keep his job at the bank so that he can become reputable again, but his decision to gain credibility through blackmail shows that he is interested only in reforming his appearance and not his inner self. Torvald too is preoccupied with appearances, something Nora understands and uses to her advantage. She knows she can put her husband in a good mood by mentioning the costume that she will don at the dance. The thought of Nora dressed up and looking beautiful placates Torvald, who takes great pleasure in the beauty of his house and his wife.

Torvald’s remark about Krogstad—“I honestly feel sick, sick to my stomach, in the presence of such people”—illustrates his deep contempt for moral corruption of Krogstad’s sort. While he thinks that such a bad character is in direct contrast to his “sweet little Nora,” we are aware that Krogstad and Nora have committed exactly the same crime—forgery. Torvald, then, has unwittingly referred to Nora when he scorns “such people.” Torvald’s unknowing condemnation of the actions of the woman he loves is an excellent example of dramatic irony, a literary device that the makes the audience privy to details of which certain characters are ignorant.

Act Two

Something glorious is going to happen.

(See Important Quotations Explained)

Summary

It is Christmas day. The messiness of the area around the Christmas tree indicates that the Christmas Eve celebration has taken place. Nora paces the room uneasily, muttering to herself about her dilemma. The nanny comes in with Nora’s costume, and Nora asks her what would happen to the children if she, Nora, disappeared altogether. Mrs. Linde enters and agrees to mend Nora’s costume for her. Nora tells Mrs. Linde that Dr. Rank is sick with a disease he inherited from his father, who was sexually promiscuous. Mrs. Linde guesses that Dr. Rank is the mysterious source of Nora’s loan, but Nora denies the charge. Mrs. Linde remarks that Nora has changed since the previous day. Torvald returns, and Nora sends Mrs. Linde to see the children, explaining that “Torvald hates the sight of sewing.”

Alone with Torvald, Nora again asks him to save Krogstad’s job. Torvald tells her that Mrs. Linde will replace Krogstad at the bank. Torvald says that Krogstad is an embarrassment and that he cannot work with him any longer. He explains that they are on a first-name basis only because they went to school together and that this -familiarity humiliates him. When Nora calls Torvald’s reasoning petty, he becomes upset and sends off a letter dismissing Krogstad. He then goes into his study.

After Torvald exits, Dr. Rank enters and hints that he expects something bad to happen soon. When it becomes apparent that he is referring to his health, Nora is visibly relieved that Dr. Rank is speaking about his own problem and not hers. Dr. Rank tells her that he will soon die and that he doesn’t want his best friend, Torvald, to see him in his sickbed. When the end is near, he tells Nora, he will leave a calling card with a black cross across it to indicate that his death is imminent.

Nora begins to flirt with Dr. Rank, coquettishly showing him her new stockings. She hints that she has a great favor to ask Dr. Rank (presumably she would like him to intervene on Krogstad’s behalf). Before she is able to ask her favor, however, Dr. Rank confesses his love for her. This disclosure disturbs Nora, and afterward she refuses to request anything from him, even though he begs her to let him help. He asks whether he should “leave for good” now that he has proclaimed his love for her, but Nora is adamant that he continue to keep Torvald company. She tells Dr. Rank how much fun she has with him, and he explains that he has misinterpreted her affection. Nora says that those whose company she prefers are often different than those she loves—when she was young, she loved her father, but she preferred to hide with the maids in the cellar because they didn’t try to dictate her behavior.

The maid, Helene, enters and gives Nora a caller’s card. Nora ushers Dr. Rank into the study with her husband and urges the doctor to keep Torvald there.

Krogstad enters and announces that he has been fired. He says that the conflicts among Nora, himself, and Torvald could be solved if Torvald would promote him to a better job in the bank. Nora objects, saying that her husband must never know anything about her contract with Krogstad. She implies that she has the courage to kill herself if it means she will absolve Torvald of the need to cover up her crime. Krogstad tells her that even if she were to commit suicide, her reputation would still be in his hands. Krogstad leaves, dropping a letter detailing Nora’s secret in the letterbox on the way out.

When Mrs. Linde returns, Nora cries that Krogstad has left a letter in the letterbox. Mrs. Linde realizes that it was Krogstad who lent Nora the money. Nora confesses that she forged a signature and makes Mrs. Linde promise to say that the responsibility for the forgery is Nora’s, so that Torvald won’t be held accountable for anything if Nora disappears. Nora hints that “something glorious is going to happen,” but she doesn’t elaborate. Mrs. Linde says that she will go to speak with Krogstad and she confesses she once had a relationship with him. She leaves, and Nora tries to stall her husband to prevent him from reading the mail.

When Torvald enters the living room, Nora makes him promise not to do any work for the remainder of the night so that he can help her prepare the tarantella that she will dance at the costume party. Torvald begins to coach Nora in the dance, but she doesn’t listen to him and dances wildly and violently.

Mrs. Linde returns, and dinner is served. Mrs. Linde tells Nora that Krogstad has left town but will return the following night. She adds that she has left him a note. Once alone, Nora remarks to herself that she has thirty-one hours until the tarantella is over, which means thirty-one hours before Torvald reads the letter—“thirty-one hours to live.”

Analysis

Nora’s comment to Mrs. Linde that Torvald doesn’t like to see sewing in his home indicates that Torvald likes the idea and the appearance of a beautiful, carefree wife who does not have to work but rather serves as a showpiece. As Nora explains to Mrs. Linde, Torvald likes his home to seem “happy and welcoming.” Mrs. Linde’s response that Nora too is skilled at making a home look happy because she is “her father’s daughter” suggests that Nora’s father regarded her in a way similar to Torvald—as a means to giving a home its proper appearance.

Torvald’s opinion on his wife’s role in their home is his defining character trait. His unrelenting treatment of Nora as a doll indicates that he is unable to develop or grow. As Nora’s understanding of the people and events around her develops, Torvald’s remains static. He is the only character who continues to believe in the charade, probably because he is the only main character in the play who does not keep secrets or harbor any hidden complexity. Each of the other characters—Nora, Mrs. Linde, Krogstad, Dr. Rank—has at some point kept secrets, hidden a true love, or plotted for one reason or another.

Nora’s use of Torvald’s pet names for her to win his cooperation is an act of manipulation on her part. She knows that calling herself his “little bird,” his “squirrel,” and his “skylark,” and thus conforming to his desired standards will make him more willingly to give in to her wishes. At first, Nora’s interaction with Dr. Rank is similarly manipulative. When she flirts with him by showing her stockings, it seems that she hopes to entice Dr. Rank and then persuade him to speak to Torvald about keeping Krogstad on at the bank. Yet after Dr. Rank confesses that he loves her, Nora suddenly shuts down and refuses to ask her favor. She has developed some moral integrity. Despite her desperate need, she realizes that she would be taking advantage of Dr. Rank by capitalizing on his earnest love for her.

When Nora explains that Dr. Rank’s poor health owes to his father’s promiscuity, for the second time we come across the idea that moral corruption transfers from parent to child. (In Act One, Torvald argues that young criminals result from a household full of lies.) These statements clarify Nora’s torment and her refusal to interact with her children when she feels like a criminal. They also reveal that both Torvald and Nora seriously believe in the influence that parents have on their children. Although the children are seldom onstage, they gain importance through Nora and Torvald’s discussions of them and of parental responsibility.

In this act, Nora shows signs that she is becoming aware of the true nature of her marriage. When she compares living with Torvald to living with her father, doubt is cast on the depth of her love for Torvald. Nora is beginning to realize that though her life with Torvald conforms to societal expectations about how husbands and wives should live, it is far from ideal.

Act Three

Summary

From the opening of the act to the arrival of Krogstad’s second letter.

Mrs. Linde sits in the Helmers’ house, waiting. Krogstad soon appears in the doorway, having received a note from Mrs. Linde asking her to meet him. She tells him that they have “a great deal to talk about,” and it becomes apparent that Mrs. Linde once had romantic relations with Krogstad but broke them off in order to marry Mr. Linde, who had more money. Mrs. Linde says that she felt the marriage was necessary for the sake of her brothers and mother but regrets having ignored her heart, which told her to stay with Krogstad. She tells Krogstad that she wants to get back together with him, to take care of him and his children. Krogstad is overjoyed.

Mrs. Linde hears the music stop upstairs and realizes that Torvald and Nora will soon return. She tells Krogstad that his letter is still in Torvald’s letterbox, and Krogstad momentarily questions Mrs. Linde’s true motives—perhaps she has promised herself to him only to save Nora. Mrs. Linde calms Krogstad, saying “when you’ve sold yourself once for someone else, you never do it again.” She even tells him that although she originally hoped to persuade him to ask for his letter back, after observing the Helmer household, she feels that Torvald must discover the truth about Nora. The dance ends, and Mrs. Linde urges Krogstad to leave. He says that he will wait for her downstairs, and she suggests that he walk her home. Krogstad then exits.

Excited by the prospect of a new life, Mrs. Linde puts on her coat and prepares to leave. Nora and Torvald enter, Nora begging to return to the party. Torvald compliments and teases Nora for Mrs. Linde’s benefit, then leaves the room in search of a candle. While he is gone, Mrs. Linde tells Nora that she has spoken to Krogstad and that Nora must tell her husband everything. Nora says, “I knew,” but then says that she will not tell Torvald. Mrs. Linde reminds her of the letter. Torvald returns, notices Mrs. Linde’s knitting, and tells her that she should take up embroidery instead, saying that embroidery is a more graceful pastime than knitting. Mrs. Linde says goodnight and then departs.

Torvald expresses his relief that Nora’s boring friend has gone, and he begins to move toward his wife. She tells him to stop watching her, but he protests that he is always entitled to watch his “prize possession.” He continues his sexual advances, telling Nora that when they are in public, he imagines her as his “secret fiancée” and “young bride.” Nora continues to protest, saying she wishes to be alone.

Dr. Rank knocks on the door, annoying Torvald by calling so late. In front of Torvald, Nora and Dr. Rank speak in coded terms about the experiment that Dr. Rank was to do on himself; Dr. Rank says that the result is clear, then exits. Torvald thinks that Dr. Rank is simply drunk, but Nora understands that Dr. Rank has come to tell her that he is certain of his impending death.

Torvald goes to retrieve his mail and notices that someone has been tampering with the mailbox lock using one of Nora’s hairpins. Nora blames the children. In the mail, Torvald finds that Dr. Rank has left two calling cards with black crosses on them. Nora explains to Torvald that this means that Dr. Rank has gone away to die. Torvald expresses sadness, but decides that Dr. Rank’s death might be best for everyone, since it will make Torvald and Nora “quite dependent on each other.” He tells Nora that he loves her so much that he has wished in the past that Nora’s life were threatened so that he could risk everything to save her.

Nora encourages Torvald to open his letters, but he argues that he would rather spend time with her. She reminds him that he must think of his dying friend, and he finally agrees that perhaps reading his letters will clear from his head the thoughts of “death and decay.”

Torvald goes into the other room, and Nora paces for a while. She throws Torvald’s cloak around her shoulders and her shawl on her head. She is contemplating suicide and is about to rush out of the house never to return when Torvald storms out of his study in a rage after reading Krogstad’s letter. Nora confesses that everything Krogstad has written is true and tells Torvald she has loved him more than anything. Torvald tells her to stop talking, bemoans the ugliness of the forgery, and calls Nora a hypocrite and a liar. He then says that he should have seen such a thing coming—Nora’s father was a morally reckless individual. Torvald blames Nora for ruining his life and his happiness by putting him at Krogstad’s mercy.

Torvald refuses to allow Nora to leave and says that the family must pretend that all is as it was before, but he states that Nora should no longer be able to see the children. He says that he will try to silence Krogstad by paying him off and hopes that he and Nora can at least keep up the appearance of happiness.

By this point, Nora has become strangely calm, frozen with comprehension as she begins to recognize the truth about her marriage. The doorbell rings, and soon after, the maid Helene enters with a letter for Nora. Torvald snatches the letter from her hands, sees that it is from Krogstad, and reads it himself. Nora does not protest. To Torvald’s relief, Krogstad writes that he has decided to stop blackmailing Nora. In his letter, Krogstad includes Nora’s promissory note (the one on which she forged her father’s signature). Torvald relaxes, rips up the contract, throws it into the stove, and tells Nora that life can go back to normal now that this “bad dream” has ended.

From now on, forget happiness. Now it’s just about saving the remains, the wreckage, the appearance.

(See Important Quotations Explained)

Analysis

For most of the play, we see Torvald delighting in Nora’s dependence upon him but not in his control over her. Nora does refer to Torvald’s restrictions of her actions—she mentions that he forbids macaroons, for instance—but the side of Torvald we see is more pushover than dictator. He seems to love his wife so much that he allows her to do whatever she pleases, as when he gives her more money to spend after she returns from buying gifts. In the scene following the party, however, Torvald’s enjoyment of his control over Nora takes on a darker tone with his somewhat perverse sexual advances toward Nora. He treats her like his possession, like the young girl he first acquired years ago. Contributing to the feeling of control that Torvald is exercising over Nora is that the evening has been of Torvald’s design—he dresses Nora in a costume of his choosing and coaches her to dance the tarantella in the manner that he finds “desirable.”

Torvald’s inability to understand Nora’s dissent when he attempts to seduce her stems from his belief that Nora, as his wife, is his property. Because he considers her simply an element of the life that he idealizes, her coldness and rebuff of his sexual advances leave him not baffled but incredulous. He has so long believed in the illusory relationship that Nora has helped him create over the years that he cannot comprehend the reality of the situation—that Nora is discontent with her life and willing to express it.

The hollowness of Torvald’s promises to save Nora shows how little he appreciates her sacrifice. Nora expects compassion from Torvald after he finds out about her predicament, especially since, after learning of Dr. Rank’s imminent death, Torvald confesses that he fantasizes about risking his life to save Nora’s. Once given the opportunity, however, Torvald shows no intention of sacrificing anything for Nora, thinking only of himself and of appearances.

Ultimately, Torvald’s selfishness becomes apparent in his lack of concern about his wife’s fate, despite the fact that she committed a crime to save his life. He panics upon learning of Nora’s crime not because he cares about what will happen to her but because he worries that his reputation will be damaged if knowledge of Nora’s crime becomes public. Instead of treating Nora with understanding and gratitude for her noble intent, he threatens and blames her and then immediately begins to think of ways to cover up the shame that she has cast on his family. His proclamation of “I’m saved” after Krogstad’s letter of retraction arrives reflects that he has been thinking only of himself in his panic. He says nothing about Nora until she asks, “And me?” His casual response—“You too, naturally”—reveals how much her well-being is an afterthought to him.

Torvald’s selfish reaction to Krogstad’s letter opens Nora’s eyes to the truth about her relationship with Torvald and leads her to rearrange her priorities and her course of action. Her shift from thinking about suicide to deciding to walk out on Torvald reflects an increased independence and sense of self. Whereas she earlier -succumbs to pressure from Torvald to preserve the appearance of idealized family life (she lies about eating macaroons and considers suicide—the ultimate sacrifice of herself—in order to conceal her misdeeds), she now realizes that she can exist outside Torvald’s confined realm.

Act Three, continued

You and Papa have done me a great wrong. It’s because of you I’ve made nothing of my life.

(See Important Quotations Explained)

Summary

From Torvald’s attempt to start over after burning Krogstad’s contract to the end of the play.

Torvald tells Nora that they must forget what has happened. Seeing her face expressionless, Torvald attempts to assure Nora that although she may not believe him, he has completely forgiven her. He says that he understands that her actions stemmed from love and that he doesn’t blame her for not understanding that “the ends didn’t justify the means.” He tells her to rely on him as her guardian and teacher, because he loves her and finds her all the more attractive for her dependence upon him.

Nora changes out of her costume and into everyday clothes. Torvald continues to assure her that everything will be okay. In fact, he argues that, by forgiving her, “it’s as if [a man has] twice made [his wife] his own.” He says that he feels he has given Nora a new life so that she is now both his wife and his child.

Nora replies that Torvald has never understood her and that, until that evening, she has never understood Torvald. She points out that—for the first time in their eight years of marriage—they are now having a “serious conversation.” She has realized that she has spent her entire life being loved not for who she is but for the role she plays. To both her father and to Torvald, she has been a plaything—a doll. She realizes she has never been happy in Torvald’s dollhouse but has just been performing for her keep. She has deluded herself into thinking herself happy, when in truth she has been miserable.

Torvald admits that there is some truth to Nora’s comments and asserts that he will begin to treat Nora and the children as pupils rather than playthings. Nora rejects his offer, saying that Torvald is not equipped to teach her, nor she the children. Instead, she says, she must teach herself, and therefore she insists upon leaving Torvald. He forbids her to leave, but she tells him that she has decided to cut off all dependence upon him, so he cannot dictate her actions. Torvald points out how she will appear to others, but Nora insists that she does not care. He then tries to take persuade Nora to stay in order to fulfill her “sacred duties” to her husband and her children, but Nora responds that she has an equally important duty to herself. She no longer believes Torvald’s assertion that she is “a wife and mother above everything else.”

Nora says that she realizes that she is childlike and knows nothing about the world. She feels alienated from both religion and the law, and wishes to discover on her own, by going out into the world and learning how to live life for herself, whether or not her feelings of alienation are justified. When Torvald accuses Nora of not loving him anymore, Nora says his claim is true. She then explains that she realized that she didn’t love Torvald that evening, when her expectation that he would take the blame for her—showing his willingness to sacrifice himself for love—wasn’t met. She adds that she was so sure that Torvald would try to cover for her that she had been planning to take her own life in order to prevent Torvald from ruining his. Torvald replies that no man can sacrifice his honor for love, but Nora retorts that many women have done so.

Once Nora makes it clear to Torvald that she cannot live with him as his wife, he suggests that the two of them live together as brother and sister, but she rejects this plan. She says that she does not want to see her children and that she is leaving them in better hands than her own. Nora returns Torvald’s wedding ring and the keys to the house and takes the ring he wears back from him. She says that they can have no contact anymore, and she frees him of all responsibility for her. She adds that she will have Mrs. Linde come the following morning to pick up her belongings.

Torvald asks whether Nora will ever think of him and the children, and she replies that she will. But she refuses to allow Torvald to write to her. Finally, Nora says that “something glorious” would have to happen for she and Torvald to have a true marriage, but then admits that she no longer believes in glorious things. She cannot imagine them changing enough to ever have an equal, workable relationship. She leaves, and as Torvald is trying to comprehend what has happened, a heavy door downstairs slams shut.

Analysis

Torvald’s explanation for refusing to take the blame—that a man can never sacrifice his integrity for love—again reveals the depth of his gender bias. Nora’s response that “[h]undreds of thousands of women” have done just that underscores that the actions of Mrs. Linde and Nora, both of whom sacrifice themselves for their loved ones, have borne out. Nora’s belief that Torvald should take responsibility for her seems justified, since what she expects from Torvald is no more than what she has already given him.

As Nora’s childish innocence and faith in Torvald shatter, so do all of her illusions. She realizes that her husband does not see her as a person but rather as a beautiful possession, nothing more than a toy. She voices her belief that neither Torvald nor her father ever loved her, but rather “thought it was enjoyable to be in love with [her].” She realizes these two men cared more about amusing themselves and feeling loved and needed than they did about her as an individual.

Moreover, Nora realizes that since she has been treated as a child for her entire life, she still is very childlike and needs to grow up before she can raise any children or take on any other responsibilities. Her defiance of Torvald when he forbids her to leave reflects her epiphany that she isn’t obligated to let Torvald dictate her actions—she is independent of him and has control over her own life. The height of Nora’s awakening comes when she tells Torvald that her duty to herself is just as sacred as her duties to her husband and children. She now sees that she is a human being before she is a wife and a mother, and that she owes it to herself to explore her personality, ambitions, and beliefs.

Mrs. Linde’s manner of fulfilling her personal desires balances Nora’s. Whereas Nora decides that she must be totally independent to be true to herself and thus rejects her family, Mrs. Linde decides that she needs to care for the man she truly loves to be true to herself and thereby become content. Ibsen positions Mrs. Linde as a foil (a character whose attitudes and emotions contrast with, and thereby accentuate, those of another character) to Nora in order to demonstrate that Nora’s actions do not constitute the only solution available to women who feel trapped by society. Mrs. Linde’s offer to care for Krogstad and his children will be a positive move for both of them, because they love each other, and Mrs. Linde, having sacrificed her whole life to live with a husband she didn’t love in order to help her brothers and mother, will finally be able to live with her chosen partner. Nora, on the other hand, has sacrificed her own will all her life by allowing her father and Torvald to indulge theirs. Ibsen suggests that one finds himself or herself not in an independent life but rather in an independent will. Nora exits her doll’s house with a door slam, emphatically resolving the play with an act of bold self-assertion.

Study Tools

Important Quotations Explained

1.

One day I might, yes. Many years from now, when I’ve lost my looks a little. Don’t laugh. I mean, of course, a time will come when Torvald is not as devoted to me, not quite so happy when I dance for him, and dress for him, and play with him.

In this quotation from Act One, Nora describes to Mrs. Linde the circumstances under which she would consider telling Torvald about the secret loan she took in order to save his life. Her claim that she might consider telling him when she gets older and loses her attractiveness is important because it shows that Nora has a sense of the true nature of her marriage, even as early as Act One. She recognizes that Torvald’s affection is based largely on her appearance, and she knows that when her looks fade, it is likely that Torvald’s interest in her will fade as well. Her suggestion that in the future she may need something to hold over Torvald in order to retain his faithfulness and devotion to her reveals that Nora is not as naïve as she pretends to be. She has an insightful, intelligent, and manipulative side that acknowledges, if only in a small way, the troubling reality of her existence.

2.

Free. To be free, absolutely free. To spend time playing with the children. To have a clean, beautiful house, the way Torvald likes it.

In this quotation from her conversation with Mrs. Linde in Act One, Nora claims that she will be “free” after the New Year—after she has paid off her debt to Krogstad. While describing her anticipated freedom, Nora highlights the very factors that constrain her. She claims that freedom will give her time to be a mother and a traditional wife who maintains a beautiful home, as her husband likes it. But the message of the play is that Nora cannot find true freedom in this traditional domestic realm. As the play continues, Nora becomes increasingly aware that she must change her life to find true freedom, and her understanding of the word “free” evolves accordingly. By the end of the play, she sees that freedom entails independence from societal constraints and the ability to explore her own personality, goals, and beliefs.

3.

Something glorious is going to happen.

Nora speaks these prophetic-sounding words to Mrs. Linde toward the end of Act Two as she tells her about what will happen when Torvald reads Krogstad’s letter detailing Nora’s secret loan and forgery. The meaning of Nora’s statement remains obscure until Act Three, when Nora reveals the nature of the “glorious” happening that she anticipates. She believes that when Torvald learns of the forgery and Krogstad’s blackmail, Torvald will take all the blame on himself and gloriously sacrifice his reputation in order to protect her. When Torvald eventually indicates that he will not shoulder the blame for Nora, Nora’s faith in him is shattered. Once the illusion of Torvald’s nobility is crushed, Nora’s other illusions about her married life are crushed as well, and her disappointment with Torvald triggers her awakening.

4.

From now on, forget happiness. Now it’s just about saving the remains, the wreckage, the appearance.

Torvald speaks these words in Act Three after learning of Nora’s forgery and Krogstad’s ability to expose her. Torvald’s conversations with Nora have already made it clear that he is primarily attracted to Nora for her beauty and that he takes personal pride in the good looks of his wife. He has also shown himself to be obsessed with appearing dignified and respectable to his colleagues. Torvald’s reaction to Krogstad’s letter solidifies his characterization as a shallow man concerned first and foremost with appearances. Here, he states explicitly that theappearance of happiness is far more important to him than happiness itself.

These words are important also because they constitute Torvald’s actual reaction to Nora’s crime, in contrast to the gallant reaction that she expects. Rather than sacrifice his own reputation for Nora’s, Torvald seeks to ensure that his reputation remains unsullied. His desire to hide—rather than to take responsibility—for Nora’s forgery proves Torvald to be the opposite of the strong, noble man that he purports himself to be before Nora and society.

5.

I have been performing tricks for you, Torvald. That’s how I’ve survived. You wanted it like that. You and Papa have done me a great wrong. It’s because of you I’ve made nothing of my life.

Nora speaks these words, which express the truth that she has gleaned about her marriage, Torvald’s character, and her life in general, to Torvald at the end of Act Three. She recognizes that her life has been largely a performance. She has acted the part of the happy, child-like wife for Torvald and, before that, she acted the part of the happy, child-like daughter for her father. She now sees that her father and Torvald compelled her to behave in a certain way and understands it to be “great wrong” that stunted her development as an adult and as a human being. She has made “nothing” of her life because she has existed only to please men. Following this -realization, Nora leaves Torvald in order to make something of her life and—for the first time—to exist as a person independent of other people.

Key Facts

FULL TITLE  ·  A Doll’s House

AUTHOR  · Henrik Ibsen

TYPE OF WORK  · Play

GENRE  · Realistic, modern prose drama

LANGUAGE  · Norwegian

TIME AND PLACE WRITTEN  ·  1879, Rome and Amalfi, Italy

DATE OF FIRST PUBLICATION  ·  1879

TONE  · Serious, intense, somber

SETTING (TIME)  · Presumably around the late 1870s

SETTING (PLACE)  · Norway

PROTAGONIST  · Nora Helmer

MAJOR CONFLICT  · Nora’s struggle with Krogstad, who threatens to tell her husband about her past crime, incites Nora’s journey of self-discovery and provides much of the play’s dramatic suspense. Nora’s primary struggle, however, is against the selfish, stifling, and oppressive attitudes of her husband, Torvald, and of the society that he represents.

RISING ACTION  · Nora’s first conversation with Mrs. Linde; Krogstad’s visit and blackmailing of Nora; Krogstad’s delivery of the letter that later exposes Nora.

CLIMAX  · Torvald reads Krogstad’s letter and erupts angrily.

FALLING ACTION  · Nora’s realization that Torvald is devoted not to her but to the idea of her as someone who depends on him; her decision to abandon him to find independence.

THEMES  · The sacrificial role of women; parental and filial obligations; the unreliability of appearances

MOTIFS  · Nora’s definition of freedom; letters

SYMBOLS  · The Christmas tree; New Year’s Day

FORESHADOWING  · Nora’s eating of macaroons against Torvald’s wishes foreshadows her later rebellion against Torvald.

Study Questions & Essay Topics

Study Questions

1. Compare Torvald’s and Nora’s attitudes toward money.

Torvald and Nora’s first conversation establishes Torvald as the member of the household who makes and controls the money and Nora as the one who spends it. Torvald repeatedly teases Nora about her spending, and at one point Mrs. Linde points out that Nora was a big spender in her younger days. These initial comments paint Nora as a shallow woman who is overly concerned with -material delights. Yet Nora’s generous tip to the porter in the play’s opening scene shows that she is not a selfish woman. More important, once the secret of Nora’s loan is made known to the audience, we see that Nora’s interest in money stems more from her concern for her family’s welfare than from petty desires. We realize that the excitement she has expressed over Torvald’s new, well-paying job results from the fact that more spending money means she can finally pay off her debt to Krogstad.

While Torvald seems less enthralled by money because he doesn’t talk about it except to chastise Nora for her spending, he is obsessed with having a beautiful home, including a beautiful wife. He considers these things important to his reputation, and keeping up this reputation requires money. Although Torvald accuses Nora of wasting money, Nora spends her money mostly on worthy causes, whereas Torvald uses his for selfish, shallow purposes.

2. Why does Torvald constantly reprimand Nora for her wastefulness and foolishness while simultaneously supporting her behavior? What insight does this contradiction give us into Torvald and Nora’s relationship?

Torvald perceives Nora as a foolish woman who is ignorant of the way society works, but he likes Nora’s foolishness and ignorance because they render her helpless and therefore dependent on him. It soon becomes clear to us that Nora’s dependence, not Torvald’s love for Nora as a person, forms the foundation of Torvald’s affection for her. In Act One, Torvald teases Nora about wasting money but then tries to please her by graciously giving her more. Similarly, he points out her faults but then says he doesn’t want her to change a bit. He clearly enjoys keeping Nora in a position where she cannot function in the world without him, even if it means that she remains foolish.

In general, Torvald disapproves of any kind of change in Nora’s constant, obedient demeanor because he needs to control her behavior. When Nora begins to dance the tarantella wildly in Act Two, he is unsettled. In Act One, Nora says that it would humiliate Torvald if he knew he was secretly in debt to her for his life, indicating that Torvald wants the power in his marriage to be one-sided rather than mutual.

3. Compare and contrast Mrs. Linde and Nora at the end of the play.

By the end of Act Three, both Nora and Mrs. Linde have entered new phases in their lives. Nora has chosen to abandon her children and her husband because she wants independence from her roles as mother and wife. In contrast, Mrs. Linde has chosen to abandon her independence to marry Krogstad and take care of his family. She likes having people depend on her, and independence does not seem to fulfill her. Despite their apparent opposition, both Nora’s and Mrs. Linde’s decisions allow them to fulfill their respective personal desires. They have both chosen their own fates, freely and without male influence. Ibsen seems to feel that the nature of their choices is not as important as the fact that both women make the choices themselves.

Suggested Essay Topics

1. What is the relationship between Mrs. Linde’s arrival and Nora’s awakening and transformation?

2. In Act One, Mrs. Linde describes Nora as “a child.” Is this assessment of Nora’s state of development valid?

3. What does Torvald’s fascination with beauty and appearances imply about his personality? Do his attitudes change at all over the course of the play?

4. Compare Nora and Krogstad. Are there any similarities between them, especially as far as their relationship to society is concerned?

5. How do the characters in A Doll’s House use the words “free” and “freedom”? Do different speakers use the terms differently? Do they take on different connotations over the course of the play?

Quiz

Suggestions for Further Reading

Wanna print the notes out? Click here.

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Chemistry: Chapter 4 - The Periodic Table

The Elements

The Ancient Greeks believed that all substances were composed of earth, air, water and fire.They referred to the four substances as elements.

The Greek Periodic Table

Robert Boyle was an Irish chemist who gave the first reasonably accurate definition for an element.

An element is a substance that cannot be split up into simpler substances by chemical means.

Humphrey Davy

Electrolysis had already been used to separate hydrogen and oxygen from water. Davy discovered elements by passing electricity through various compounds.

In 1807, he discovered potassium by passing electricity through potassium hydroxide. He discovered sodium in a similar way.

Henry Moseley

In 1914, Moseley used x-rays to discover the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.He found that the main difference between one element and another was the number of protons in the nucleus.

No two elements had the same number of protons.

History of the Periodic Table

Dobreiner’s Triads

Dobreiner looked at the properties of various elements in an attempt to find order among them. He saw trends and similarities amongseveral groups of elements in threes.

He called a group of three elements a triad e.g. Cl, Br and I.

A triad is a group of 3 elements with similar chemical properties in which the atomic weight of the middle one is approximately equal to the average of the other two.

The modern name for atomic weight is the relative atomic mass.

Few other cases of triads could be found and his triads were looked on as coincidences.

Newland’s Octaves

Newland arranges the known elements in order of their atomic weights (relative atomic masses). He found that the properties of the elements repeated each other after every eighth element.

He called this the Law of the Octaves.

Newlands Octaves are groups of element sarranged in order of increasing atomic weight, in which the first and the eighth element of each group have similar properties.

This does not apply to the modern Periodic Table as not all elements were discovered yet, in particular the Noble gases.

Newlands Law of Octaves only worked for the first 16 elements.

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

Mendeleev also arranged in order of increasing atomic weight (relative atomic mass). He found like Newland did that every eighth element had similar physical and chemical properties.

His findings became known as Mendeleev’s Periodic Law.

When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic weight (relative atomic mass), the properties of the elements vary periodically.

Because the properties of the elements varied periodically the table was called the Periodic Table of Elements.

The difference between Mendeleev’sTable and Newland’s table

 Mendeleev left gaps for elements that were yet not discovered. When Mendeleev realised that an element did not fit into the pattern of similar properties in the columns and rows, he left it blank, presuming that there were elements not yet discovered.

Mendeleev reversed the order of some elements in order to make them fall into groups of elements of similar properties. eg tellurium and iodine – if they were arranged by atomic weight then iodine would be first. However, Mendeleev realised that properties were more important than atomic weight and reversed the order.

Moseley – Atomic Number

Moseley discovered a method of determining the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

This number was called the atomic number.The atomic number of an atom is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.

Moseley arranged elements in order of increasing atomic number. This meant that elements did not need to be reversed in order as in Mendeleev’s Periodic Table.

It was Moseley that made that final step from Mendeleev’s Periodic Table the modern Periodic table.

The Modern Periodic Table

The modern Periodic Table is an arrangement of elements in order of increasing atomic number.

The modern Periodic Law may now be stated as follows; When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, the properties of the elements vary periodically.

[mylcnotes-blog-blog]

Chemistry: Chapter 3 - Arrangement of Electrons in the Atom

Position of Electrons

Rutherford proposed that electrons were revolved around the nucleus like planets revolving around the sun.

This defied the laws of physics! If this was the case the electrons would have collapsed into the nucleus.

Niels Bohr

A Danish scientist who provided an insight into the arrangement of electrons in the atom by examining spectrums of light.

Continuous Spectrum of Light

White light passed through a prism produces a spectrum of light (a rainbow).

This spectrum is referred to as a continuous spectrum of light.

Continuous Spectrum a spectrum in which all wavelengths are present between certain limits.

Line Spectrum

Bohr passed light from a hydrogen discharge tube (a glass tube of hydrogen with an electric current passing through it) through a prism.

Instead of seeing a continuous spectrum, he saw a series of lines. This is called a line spectrum.

Emission Line Spectrum

Note: More notes tomorrow. Good night :L

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Chemistry: Chapter 2 - The Atom

Matter is the scientific name for materials.

All material is composed of particles. These particles are atoms, molecules and ions.

Evidence for the existence of small particles.

Atoms

very minute size particles

not even the most powerful microscope can give us a clear view of a single atom. However, groups of atom can be looked at.

although they are made up of smaller particles, the atom can be considered the basic unit of which small substances are formed.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhbqIJZ8wCM

History of the Atom

Greek Philosophers (about 400 BC)

Proposed that matter was composed of tiny particles, however they did not carry out experiments to test this theory.

They believed these particles were invisible. The Greek word for indivisible is atomos where we get the atom from.

John Dalton (Atomic Theory)

In 1808 Dalton wrote a book which put forward the Atomic Theory.

Dalton's Atomic Theory stated that;

All matter is made up of very small particles called atoms.

All atoms are indivisible. They cannot be broken into simpler particles.

Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.

Law of conservation of matter (energy)

Matter cannot be created nor destroyed in any chemical reaction, but can be changed from one form to another.

William Crooked (Cathode Rays)

In 1875, Crookes set out to find why there was a glow in a vacuum tube when an electric current was passed through it.

He demonstrated that there was radiation coming from the end of the tube connected to the negative end of the battery. The negative metal end in the tube was called the cathode.

He showed the existence of this radiation by placing a Maltese cross inside the tube connected to the positive end of the battery. This was the anode.

A shadow was formed at the other end of the tube.

The rays were called cathode rays. These were invisible until they struck the glass in the tube which caused them to glow.

JJ Thomson (The electron)

In 1897, Thomson developed an experiment to investigate if cathode rays consisted of charged particles.

He passed a narrow beam of cathode rays through a small hole in the positive electrode (anode). The narrow beam passed between two parallel metal plates and struck a fluorescent screen at the far end of the tube.

He found that when there was no charge on the parallel plates the beam passed straight down the tube.

When a positive charge was placed on the upper plate and a negative on the bottom the beam moved upwards changing the position where it stuck the screen.

He concluded that the rays consisted of negatively charged particles as they were attracted to the positive plate.

These negatively charged particles were called electrons. George Stoney an Irish professor developed this name back in 1891. He proposed that the smallest amount of electric charge be called an electron.

Thomson used this name for the negative particles.

Cathode rays are streams of negatively charged particles called electrons.

Thomson also managed to calculate the ratio of the size of the charge on the electron to its mass (e/m), but he could not determine a value for each number.

In 1898, Thomson proposed a very simple structure for an atom. It became known as the Plum pudding model. He visualised that the atom was sphere of positive charge with electrons embedded in it.

History of the Atom

Robert Millikan (The charge and mass of the electron)

In 1909, Millikan devised an experiment to measure the size of the charge on the electron.

He ionised the air between to electrical plates i.e. The air molecules lost electrons becoming ions.

He then sprayed droplets of oil between the charged metal plates. These oil droplets picked up the electron and became negatively charged.

Millikan focused in on one oil droplet. He placed a positive charge on the top plate causing the droplet to be attracted upwards. He adjusted the strength of the electrical charge until the droplet was suspended in air.

Because the droplet was stationary then the force acting up from the charged plate must equal the force acting down from gravity. This allowed Millikan to calculate the charge of the electron and therefore the mass of the electron.

Ernest Rutherford(discovered the nucleus and the proton)

Ernest and his team bombarded gold foil with alpha particles (positively charged radiation). They expect that the particles would deflect slightly as the passed through. This small deflection would be what the plum pudding model would predict.

However, they found out that most particles went straight through the foil (atom is mainly empty space), some particles were deflected at wide angles (the nucleus had a positive charge) and a few particles bounced straight back (most of the atoms mass is located in the centre ie the nucleus).

Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment

From 1911 to 1919, Rutherford began bombarding various substances with alpha particles. The caused a release of positively charged particles which he called protons.

James Chadwick (discovery of the neutron)

In 1932, he bombarded a sample of beryllium with alpha particles.

He realised that some radiation consisting of particles with no charge was being emitted. The alpha particles were knocking these neutral particles out of the nuclei. Because they were neutral he named them neutrons.

Properties of the sub-atomic particles

Note: I will double check my post later for any corrections so I apologise if there's any.

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5th year Chemistry Summer Tests - Definitions

Activation Energy: is the minimum energy which colliding particles must have for a reaction to occur.

Aliphatic Compound: is and organic compound that consists of open chains of carbon atoms and closed chain compounds (ring) that resemble them in chemical properties.

Aromatic Compounds: a compound that contain a benzene ring structure in their molecules.

Arrhenius' definition of Acid: an acid is a substance that dissociates in water to produce H+  ions.

Arrhenius' definition of Base: a base is a substance that dissociates in water to produce OH- ions.

Atomic Radius: half the distance between the nuclei of two atoms of the same element joined together by a single covalent bond.

Aufbau Principle: States that when building up the electronic configuration of an atom in its ground state, the electrons occupy the lowest available energy level.

Bond Energy: is the energy required to break one mole of covalent bonds to separate the neutral atoms completly from each other.

Catalyst: is a substance that alters the rate of the chemical reaction but is not consumed in the reaction.

Conjugate acid-base pair: is any pair consisting of an acid and a base which differ by one proton.

Covalent:

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It's Finally Mid-Term!!!!

Okay, tomorrow I'm off to church. But I promise I will start posting notes on Monday and Tuesday after my rehearsal for our school play, Calamity Jane. Also I can't do on Wednesday. Thursday, I have to study for my chemistry test. Yep, the whole day. 4 chapters :( anyway, Friday...yes I might be back. Oh shoot I forgot I need to go to the gym this week as well. Ayay yay.. Ah well. See yas. 

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A 5th year student in St. Wolstans Community School.