#iec

[mingos-commodoreblog]

Tutorial - Meatloaf, the all-rounder for the C64 - Part 1 (German)

[xialite]

All the non-UN orgs designs I have made so far

That was a lot of them but I like how this turnt out ngl

[fingors]

C — The Way It’s Written — Types

This is the first part in a possibly multi-part series of posts about the C programming language. It’s based not on common examples or what you’ll see your particular C compiler output, but on what’s written in the actual standard(s) that define the language. That being ISO/IEC 9899, in particular the 2018 revision (often named C17 or C18), however due to upcoming significant changes in the next revision (C2X), I’ll be skipping over a couple bits here and there that will be deprecated or removed by said revision, I’ll also revert to older versions if needed for special cases. All that being said, unless stated otherwise these posts are about C17. This series also assumes a baseline level familiarity with programming in general and expects you to know the general syntax style of C (if you’ve written or read and C++, Java, C#, or any similar language you’re good).

Due to the nature of C17 being an ISO/IEC document, it is not freely available for download, however the final working draft version of it is freely available, and there should be no significant changes between it and final. Link here.

Now, in what might seem like a very odd choice, we’re going to instantly skip to section 6 of the standard, not only that we’re skipping directly to 6.2.5 (page 31), because this is what defines the fundamental types of the language. Paragraphs 2, 4 and 6 are the important ones right now. From 2 we learn that the type _Bool (just bool in C2X) is at least large enough to hold the values 0 or 1 (hence its name, bool, short for boolean). Then we come to paragraph 4, which states there are 5 standard signed integer types: char, short, int, long, and long long (there’s also a statement about extended types but that can be ignored for the moment). Finally we hit paragraph 6, which simply states that all signed integer types have an unsigned equivalent that can be written by simply attaching the word unsigned to one of the types (ex. unsigned int), and that these 5 unsigned types combined with _Bool make up the set of unsigned types, and that any unsigned type takes up the same amount of storage/memory space as its corresponding signed type.

Moving back slightly to paragraph 5 we learn that signed char and char take the same amount of memory (and as such so does unsigned char), it also states that the int type should be the natural operating size of whatever machine architecture the code is being written for (so long as it satisfies a minimum value requirement). Moving forward to paragraph 9 we learn that, as you would expect, the signed types can store negative and positive values, and that the unsigned types can only store positive (or zero) values. We also learn that by definition unsigned values can not overflow, instead their value simply wraps around the range, however this is often referred to as overflow regardless.

Yet further down (paragraph 15, next page) we learn that char, signed char, and unsigned char are all different types, however char must match either char or unsigned char (the reasoning for this is that a compiler is free to choose the most efficient match for processing).

So with all that jumble out of the way what did we actually learn? Well: there exist 5 fundamental integer types: char, short, int, long, and long long, and that signed and unsigned versions of each exist, we also know there’s an unsigned type, _Bool that can represent the values 0 and 1. Together these make up the integer types of C.

Beyond integers there’s also floating point types, float, double, and long double, but those are a much more complicated subject that are outside the scope of this post. There’s also the void type, which has confusing wording that basically boils down to “you can’t use this, it represents nothing” (which is why functions with no return value have their return type marked void). And finally that you can make arrays out of these types (except void), make structure types that contain any number of these types (except void), make union types (complicated subject, think a box that can store only one type (except void) at a time), you can declare functions that return any type, you can have a pointer to any type (including void in order to represent a pointer to an unknown type), and finally that any type can be made atomic (safe for access from multiple threads).

Most of that statement can be freely ignored for now, it’s a mess that we’ll (hopefully) get into later. The important bit to know is that you can build other types out of the fundamental types.

Moving beyond that section and into 6.2.6 we learn from 6.2.6.1 Paragraphs 2-4 that objects (any type’s representation in memory basically) is made out of a continuous sequence of bytes. Moving to 6.2.6.2 we get to the representation of integer types, which is pretty much what you would expect for unsigned values (an unsigned integer of size n value bits can store 2n values from 0 to 2n-1), signed integer types in C17 list three different representations, however C2X is reducing that down to just twos’ complement (a signed integer of size n bits can store from -2n-1 to 2n-1-1, negative zeros are not possible).

So far: there exist integer types, and these store values in the expected way, but what are the range of values they must store?

Section 5.2.4.2.1 (page 20), paragraph 1 states that all implementations of the language must have the integer types be able to represent at least the values in the ranges listed below, meaning an implementation is free to expand the range if it sees fit (like how many do with int). From here we learn that a char must be at least 8 bits, and as such a signed char must be able to represent -127 (-128 in twos’ complement) to 127, and that an unsigned char is 0 to 255. Helpfully the actual (minimum) number of bits for each type is specified in a comment next to the definition. short is 16 bits/2 bytes, int is also 16 bits/2 bytes (again often expanded to 32 bits/4 bytes), long is 32 bits/4 bytes, and long long is 64 bits/8 bytes. _Bool due to its nature as a boolean type is not mentioned (actually any values placed into an object of type _Bool will become 0 if the value is 0 or 1 otherwise).

In summary: 6 types, _Bool (0 or 1), char (at least 8 bits), short (at least 16 bits), int (at least 16 bits, often 32), long (at least 32 bits), and long long (at least 64 bits).

So that’s it? For now yeah, those are the basic integer types of the C programming language, I know it was messy and weirdly formatted and confusing at times but I hope it helps understand the language a bit more, or at the very least was entertaining (even if that entertainment derived from “what the hell is this language?”). However, these complexities are part of the reason I love this language so much, everything is well defined but still variable depending on the system and compiler, there’s a reason for everything in this language ranging anywhere from “old” to “for performance reasons we can’t mandate this”, which if this series continues we’ll really get into. But for now, I hope this was enough of a taste of the standard to either make you interested in seeing more, or scare you the hell away forever. Thank you for reading and have a good time. If you have any suggestions for future parts or ways I could improve these writings please inform me. I need to go to sleep now.

[tonystarkstan]

We can’t stop fighting for justice. We can’t rest after just a week or two of speaking out—there are so many more voices that still need to be heard.

Sign this petition to get justice for Tamla Horsford.

Up next: @mywingsareonwheels

[ansidotorg]

Accreditation brings quality to the laboratory.

Laboratory operations are essential to the world we inhabit, and ANAB laboratory accreditation provides credibility and confidence for those who rely on tests, calibration results, and certification.

ANAB assessors evaluate a laboratory’s ability to produce precise, accurate test and calibration data under ISO/IEC 17025. There are also programs for medical laboratories that demonstrate the quality and reliability of their services through ISO 15189 and laboratories that regulate testing of drinking water, wastewater discharges, and hazardous waste cleanup sites throughout California under the California State Water Resources Control Board Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program (ELAP).

Beyond consistent operations, ANAB accreditation delivers global recognition and a competitive advantage to laboratories.

And now, in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, ANAB offers remote assessments to make sure that laboratories throughout the world continue to strive for excellence during these trying times.

[cbschrock]

#prsample Hey all @indieexpocanada attendees!! Stop by Jennalyn's @lynbdesigns table to get your IEC Exclusive. Toque My Breath Away is a deep plum when cold, to bright magenta when warm, thermal polish. It has micro holo glitter and flakies for days, too. .I used 2 coats plus a QDTC. The transition is more obvious in person, she was kinda tricky for my camera to pick up. . . .#hospitalhands #swatch #notd #nailsoftheday #nails #naturalnails #nailsonfleek #nailsonpoint #mani #manicure #nailgasm #nailpolishaddict #nailspafeature #IEC #girlynails #prettynails #thermalpolish https://www.instagram.com/p/B1T8VnQhBjG/?igshid=1drd7x8de101a

[eretzyisrael]

Israel restores electricity to Gaza

IEC employees repair the damage caused to the company's equipment as a result of a rocket fired by terrorists.

On Wednesday evening, IEC employees repaired the damage caused to the company's equipment in the Gaza vicinity as a result of a rocket fired by terrorists.

Yesterday, damage from rocket strikes caused severe power disruptions to the southern Gaza Strip.

At the order of Energy Minister Yuval Steinitz, the equipment will be repaired tonight only after a lull and an end to the rocket fire, in order not to endanger the workers of the Israel Electric Corporation.

The Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories, Major General Kamil Abu Rukun, explained to the Arabs of the Gaza Strip why many of them suffer from a lack of electricity. The coordinator wrote in Arabic on his Facebook page that "the massive firing during the day of the Islamic Jihad terrorist organization, under the auspices of the Hamas terrorist organization, damaged the electricity infrastructure and caused a malfunction in the electricity supply to your homes during the blessed month of Ramadan."

"Residents of the Gaza Strip, it is time to wake up and understand that Hamas and Islamic Jihad are using you as hostages and continue their repeated attempts to escalate the situation at your expense, when you are the ones most hurt," added Rokon.

[tinyjerkface]

im so glad i get to rp this little gremlin again