Art History Things

a mixture of art and history and thoughts

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Carolingian Art

In the 8th century, Charlemagne became the first Holy Roman Emperor. This period came to be known as the Carolingian period. During his reign (or during his grandson, Charles the Bald's reign), he produced a bronze equestrian portrait of himself. 

(Equestrian portrait of Charlemagne, or Charles the Bald, from Metz, France, ninth century. Bronze, originally gilt.)

Charlemagne definitely drew some influence from the Roman bronze sculpture of Marcus Aurelius. The only differences are that Charlemagne wears an imperial robe with a sheathed sword, an imperial crown and has a globe in his hand. The globe in the hand is a common symbol that signifies world domination. 

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The Checkerboard Man

One of my favorite artworks in the early medieval era is the "Man", or the symbol of Saint Matthew from folio 21 verso of the Book of Durrow. It is from Iona, Scotland made somewhere between 660-680. It is ink and tempera on parchment. 

In this rather Klimt-like figure, the only actual human parts are the head and the two feet. The rest of the body is covered n the checkerboard cloak of red, yellow and green squared. This page from the Book of Durrow combines the personal decoration of the medieval era and the imagery of the Early Christian art. 

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The Art of the Vikings

The art of the Vikings tended to be utilitarian art. In other words, their artworks were on the items they used. For example, the Vikings decorated the posts of their ships. The sculptor captured the scariness of the animal through its protruding eyes and its teeth. It has Roman influences seen in the animal form and the intricate interlace pattern. 

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Islamic Architecture: Hall of the Two Sisters

The Palace of the Lions is another Islamic building in Spain. The Hall of Two Sisters is a room with a beautiful dome. The dome consists of n 8 pointed star, with eight pairs of windows and 5000 muqarnas, or the tier after tier of prismatic forms. The visual effect of the muqarnas is to reflect sunlight and form abstract patterns. The airiness of the texture symbolizes the dome of Heaven. 

(Muqarnas dome, Hall of the Two Sisters, Alhambra palace, Granada, Spain, 1345-1391)

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The Dome of the Rock

(Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem 687-692)

The Dome of the Rock was built on the holy site of Adam's burial, of Abraham;s preparation of Isaac's sacrifice, and of the Temple of Solomon that the Romans destroyed in the year 70. The construction of the mosque marked the coming of another religion to the holy city of Jerusalem. Inside the dome, there is the rock that Muslims believe Mohammed ascended to heaven. The tiles were reconstructed, but it generally shows what the tiling was like before the reconstruction. Just as Islam teachings has roots in Judaism and Christianity, Islamic architecture has influences from Judaism and Christianity. The Dome of the Rock is often compared to the San Vitale in Ravenna, for its octagonal dome. It is also compared to Santa Costanza for the resemblance in the rotundas. 

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Early Islamic Architecture: Cordoba

MOSQUES IN SPAIN

In 711, the Arabs had overthrown the Christian kingdom of the Spanish peninsula. It lasted for about three centuries and was known as the Spanish Umayyad dynasty. The capital was Cordoba. 

(Prayer hall of the Great Mosque, Cordoba, Spain. 8th to 10th centuries)

The prayer hall in the Great Mosque in Cordoba has 36 piers and 514 columns. The columns have double tiered arches that supported a wooden roof. The columns were originally too short for the height, so the architects added the lower horseshoe-shaped arches. The horseshoe shape quickly became associated with Islamic architecture. 

This is the maqsura of the Great Mosque. These multi-lobed arches are filled with abstract patterns that serve as the prime example of Islamic architecture. 

This is the ceiling of the dome of the Great Mosque. 

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Early Islamic Architecture: Mosques

Mosques are the place of worship for Muslims. It is said that the original mosque might have been Mohammed's, or the prophet's, house in Medina. In history, groups of Muslims have erected mosques in the places they conquered to show the evidence of their power over non-Islamic areas. Mosques can vary in size and in decoration, but the two things mosques always have in common are that they always face Mecca and the followers pray facing the qibla wall. 

(Great Mosque, Damascus, Syria, 706-715)

The Great Mosque in Damascus used to be a Roman temple and a Byzantine church before the Islamic Umayyads partially destroyed it to create the Great Mosque. Therefore, the Great Mosque has many characteristics of Roman and Byzantine architecture. For example, masonry blocks, columns, and capitals are from Roman and Early Christian structures that the Umayyads took. The minarets, the towers, were Roman towers. The main entrance to the courtyard has a facade with a pediment and arches, which is similar to what the Roman temples had. 

The plan of the Great Mosque in Kairouan, Tunisia, is called hypostyle. It is said to be the closest to the original mosque, or Mohammed's house. The plan consists of one minaret, two domes, a prayer hall in the area underneath the domes, the mihrab, and the qibla dome. 

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Islamic Luxury Art

One of the key characteristics of Islamic art is the arabesques. Arabesques are the intricate decorations comprised of geometric shapes, plants, and sometimes animal figures. However, these figures are so stylized that they look like one large intermingling of each other. They can cover a whole surface or just appear as a light decoration. 

EARLY ISLAMIC (around the eighth century)

Silk textiles and wool carpets are some of the most prominent forms of art in Islamic art. Since they are so fragile, only a few remain today. The Islamic people of this time must have gotten their silk from the Chinese through the Silk Road, which connected Asia to the Middle East to Europe. 

(Confronting lions and palm tree, fragment of a textile said to be from Zandana, near Bukhara, Uzbekistan, eighth century. Silk compound twill, 2'11" X 2' 9.5")

This is a silk textile from Uzbekistan in the eighth century. There is an arabesque border not only on the left side, but also around the two lions in the middle facing the palm tree between them. There are also other animals frolicking around another arabesque feature that looks like a plant of some sort. It is said that this textile was used to wrap treasures traveling from the Middle East to France. 

(SULAYMAN, Ewer in the form of a bird, 796. Brass with silver and copper inlay, 1'3" high)

This inscribed ewer by the artist, Sulayman, displays the flexibility of Islamic design. This ewer is basically a freestanding statue, except for its holes between the eyes and the beak, which could signify that it was used for something else. The incisions on the body look like feathers, but there are rosettes on the neck and medallions on the chest which have no relation to the anatomy of a bird. These designs can also be seen on mosques and textiles. Sulayman signed his name and the location onto the bird, but the birthplace of this statute is illegible. 

The motif of animals is popular in Islamic household luxury arts, but it rarely shows up as decorations on mosques.

(Koran page with beginning of surah 18, al-Kahf (The Cave), 9th or early 10th century. Ink and gold on vellum 7.25" X 10.25")

Calligraphy is another form of art popular in Islamic art, and the popular things to write were the quotations from the Koran. Arabic script, which is older than the Koran, is written from right to left. To facilitate recitation of the Koran, scribes put red or yellow symbols over or under the line to indicate vowels. There is yet again another plant motif in this Koran page at the top; the palm tree finial at the top serves as decoration to the page.

LATER ISLAMIC ART (13th to 16th centuries)

(MAQSUD OF KASHAN, carpet from the funerary mosque of Shaykh Safi al-Din, Ardabil, Iran, 1540. Knotted pile of wool and silk, 34' 6" X 17' 7")

This carpet, made by Maqsud of Kashan, has about 25 million knots. There is a large medallion in the middle and surrounding it are opposite sides of the medallion; the one on top is larger so that the viewer (sitting at the bottom side) can look at the lamp on the other side, which looks about the same size as the one on the bottom. The background is a deep blue, which makes the whole piece resemble a body of water full of louts blossoms with a dome with lamps in the middle.

(SULTAN-MUHAMMAD, the court of Gayumars, detail of folio 20 verso of the Shahnama of Shah Tahmasp, from Tabriz, Iran, ca. 1525-1535. Ink, watercolor, and gold on paper)

This is a page from the Shahnama, or the Book of Kings, which is the Persian national epic poem by Firdawsi. This particular page shows Gayumars, the first king of Iran, and his court. There are many human and animal figures around the center below Gayumars. 

(Ottoman royal ceremonial caftan, from Istanbul, Turkey, ca. 1550. Polychrome silk and gilt metal thread, 4'9" high)

This is an elegant robe said to be worn by Suleyman the Magnificent's son Bayezid. This style is distinctly Ottoman and is called saz. Saz is made up of curvy leaves and blossoms that resemble a forest. 

There isn't a significant difference between the Early and the Later Islamic luxury arts as there is between luxury household arts and religious arts. Even though there were many human and animal figures in the luxury arts, neither ever show up on mosques. 

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Byzantine Churches 500-1200 CE

Byzantine Churches went through several changes throughout its history. One general change is that the exteriors of churches went from bland to ornate. Some say that it was the effect of Islam coming into the Byzantine empire. 

Some similarities between the churches is that they all had many windows that allowed light to illuminate the religious and biblical paintings and mosaics inside. Architecturally, they all generally kept the dome or at least some point of main focal point. 

(Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul), Turkey, 532-537)

(Interior of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul), Turkey, 532-537)

(Aerial View of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy, 526-547)

(Interof San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy, 526-547)

(Monastery churches at Hosios Loukas, Greece, first quarter of 11th century)

Beginning with the monasteries, the exterior of churches became ornate. 

(Monastery churches at Hosios Loukas, Greece, first quarter of 11th century

(Church of Saint Catherine, Thessaloniki, Greece, ca. 1280)

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Early Christian Ivory Art

Ivory became a popular luxury form of art. They were imported from India or Africa. Christians often used ivory to create boxes with panels that show biblical stories. 

(Suicide of Judas and Crucifixion of Christ. plaque from a box, ca. 420, Ivory.)

This plaque is one of the first Christian artworks about the Crucifixion of Christ. However, rather than hanging from the cross, he is displayed on the cross, almost as if he just standing. Judas, compared to Christ in the center, hangs from the tree under his silver. Judas looks as if he is in pain and his neck appears to be broken. Christ, on the other hand, looks serene in his death. 

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Early Christian Mosaics

Within one hundred years, the portrayal of Christ in early Christian mosaics had changed. In 405, the mosaic from the entrance wall of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, Italy was finished. 

(Christ as the Good Shepherd, mosaic from the entrance wall of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna, Italy, ca. 425.)

This ornate lunette of Christ with a herd of sheep has several stylistic characteristics from the classical period. The figures are realistic, since they are three dimensional and cast shadows. There is Christian symbolism, such as Christ's clothing and the halo around his head. The sheep are grouped in two sets of three, which could symbolize the Holy Trinity. 

In 504, there was a new mosaic of Christ that was quite different from the one in Galla Placidia. One obvious difference is the use of background. In Galla Placidia, the background is detailed with a blue sky, rocks, and some plants. 

(Miracle of the loaves and fishes, mosaic from the top register of the nave wall (above the clerestory windows) of Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, Italy ca. 504.)

In this one, the background is gold, and the only rocks and plants are on the sides, flanking the figures. Compared to Galla Placidia, the Miracle of the loaves and fishes focus on the divinity of Chris rather than the surrounding of Christ. Christ, in the middle, holding loaves and fish, looks directly at the viewer, while the Christ in Galla Placidia looks to the side. 

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Early Christian Funerary Art

Although differing in ideology, pagans and Christians both fancied marble sarcophagi with beautiful reliefs. Christians rejected cremation, so they had to bury their dead, but only the wealthy could afford marble sarcophagi. Of course, just like the ceiling of the cubiculum in the catacomb of Saints Peter and Marcellinus, the theme was Christian. 

(Sarcophagus with philosopher, orant, and Old and New Testament scenes, Santa Maria Antiqua, Rome, Italy, ca. 270. Marble.)

This sarcophagus shows the story of Jonah, a praying woman and a philosopher, and two representations of the Good Shepherd getting baptized. 

(Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, from Rome, Italy, ca. 359. Marble.)

On this sarcophagus, there are two rows of five panels that show biblical or religious scenes. On the previous sarcophagus, the scenes are side by side and the only thing that distinguishes the scene changes are trees. Here, the scenes are separated with Corinthian columns. The two sarcophagi show several different biblical scenes, but they do not show the crucifixion of Jesus. It was not until the fifth century when the crucifixion of Jesus began appearing on artworks. 

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Christian Lunettes (Early Christian art from the fourth century)

During Constantine the Great's reign from 306 to 337 CE, paganism declined and Christianity became popular. Although the subjects of the artworks were biblical, the style of those artworks could be traced back to Roman art or art even before the Roman era. 

One such example is ceiling of a cubiculum in the Catacomb of Saints Peter and Marcellinus from Rome, Italy. 

(The Good Sheperd, the story of Jonah, and orants, painted ceiling of a cubiculum in the Catacomb of Saints Peter and Marcellinus, Rome , Italy, early fourth century.)

This frescoed ceiling shows the story of Jonah in the middle circle and the four lunettes, or semicircles. The layout of the ceiling is similar to the ceiling of the vault in the Insula of the Painted Vaults in Ostia, from the third century. 

(Ceiling and wall paintings in Room IV of the Insula of the Painted Vaults, Ostia, Italy, early third century.)

These two are similar in that they both have lunettes around a full circle. One difference is that in the Christian ceiling, there are four lunettes, symbolizing the four arms of the Christian cross. 

Another interesting connection to a past culture is the use of sheep as a symbol. In the ceiling of the cubiculum in the catacomb, there are sheep, which symbolize Christ's followers. In an ancient Greek sculpture, a subject is portrayed carrying a calf on his shoulders. Interestingly enough, in Christian art, a sheep carried on Christ's shoulders symbolizes a sinner who has strayed from the holy path. 

(Calf Bearer, dedicated by Rhonbos on the Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 560 BCE. Marble, restored height approx. 5'5".)

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Roman Influences in Modern Life: Ostia

Ostia is Rome's harbor city. The population of Ostia boomed after Trajan opened a new port. There emerged insulae, or multistory apartment blocks. 

There were shops on the first floor. The second, third and fourth floors were for tenants, which is a similar set up to some of today's apartment buildings in large cities. 

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Hadrian's Villa ca. 125-128 CE: Rebellious design

Hadrian, who ruled from 117 to 138 CE, was not only an emperor, but also an architect. Although he ordered the construction of the Pantheon, he is more responsible for the construction and the design for his villa in Tivoli, Italy.

(Canopus and Serapeum, Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli, Italy, ca. 125-128 CE)

There are many obvious Greek influences in this part of Hadrian's villa. There are the Corinthian columns and the Greek statues lining the body of water. What is different is the shape of the colonnade; it curves around the water. Another difference from Greek architecture is that instead of a straight lintel, there is a curved one.

(Maritime Theatre, Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli, Italy, ca. 125-128 CE)

This is another part of Hadrian's villa, the Maritime Theatre. Hadrian took a regular Roman house with the atrium, impluvium and tablinium, but shaped it in a circle. Like he did with the colonnade, Hadrian changed the traditional design of the Roman house. 

He must have loved circles very much.

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The Revolution of statues and busts of Roman elites

Portraits of different mediums have been created for elite members of society and rulers throughout history, and Rome is no exception. However, over the course of ancient Roman history, portraiture of elites had changed in many ways. 

(Head of a Roman patrician, from Otricoli, Italy, ca. 75-50 BCE. Marble, approx. 1'2" high.)

This portrait of an unknown Roman patrician is a prime example of verism, or supperrealism. In this portrait, the artist paid close attention to each wrinkle and ridge of the man's face and made sure to make those imperfections visible. The style of the portrait mirrors the ideals of that time; people had more faith in older and wiser rulers, since they were known to be more serious and have more experience. 

(Portrait of a Roman general, from the Sanctuary of Hercules, Tivoli, Italy, ca. 75-50 BCE. Marble, approx. 6'2" high.)

There seems to be an odd mixture of the Roman veristic head and the Greek idealistic body in this portrait of a Roman general. The general has an old face, clad in wrinkles and other signs of age, on top of a youthful, idealistic, Greek body. Perhaps the general wanted to portray himself as not only wise and old, but also young and able to rule. 

(Portrait of Augustus as general, from Primaporta, Italy, early first century CE copy of a bronze original of ca. 20 BCE. Marble. 6'8" high.)

Augustus's portrait deviates from the tradition of verism, or at least the notion that old and wise men are better rulers. In this portrait, Augustus's youth is evident in the face and the body. Augustus came to power when he was only nineteen, in 44 BCE. That means that he was 43 when this portrait was made. So, although Augustus grew older and had wrinkles in real life, his portraits still showed a youthful Augustus. Besides the deviation of verism, there are other significant aspects of this portrait. The reliefs on his chest show a scene from one of his victories. At his feet stands Cupid, which symbolizes his divine ancestry. 

(Portrait of Vespasian, ca. 75-59 CE. Marble, approx. 1'4" high.)

The portrait of Vespasian deviates from the previous portrait and goes back to verism. One can see his receding hair line and wrinkles. This was perhaps a political request; before him ruled the notorious Nero, and Vespasian wanted to show the Roman people that he was different. Besides showing his difference from Nero through his portraits, Vespasian also showed his difference by draining Nero's lake to build the Colosseum. 

(Portrait bust of Hadrian as general, from Tel Shalem, Israel, ca. 130-138 CE. Bronze, approx. 2'11" high.) 

The portraits from this time of ancient Roman history sits in the middle ground between verism and idealism. Here, Hadrian is neither wrinkled nor youthful. He is mature. The beard signifies maturity, and will be used for the next century to symbolize the same characteristic. 

(Portrait of Marcus Aurelius, detail of a relief from a lost arch, Rome, Italy, ca. 175-180 CE. Marble, approx. life-size.)

Marcus Aurelius follows the beard trend that Hadrian started, but something is quite different about this portrait. The artist of this portrait went over and beyond verism. Marcus Aurelius is not just old, but there is a sense of physical and emotional fatigue in his face. His thoughts and emotions were displayed on the face on this portraiture. Portraiture was not the only medium Marcus Aurelius used to express his thoughts; he wrote Meditations, a philosophical treatise that discusses his personal view of the world. Marcus Aurelius's philosophical character seeps through in this portrait. 

(Portrait of Caracalla, ca. 211-217 CE. Marble, approx. 1'2" high.)

This portrait of Caracalla is a continuation of the characterization of portraits set forth by Marcus Aurelius. In real life, Caracalla was an evil, ruthless man who assassinated his wife and his brother, Geta. In this portrait, that same evil can be seen through the maliciousness of his face, such as the eyes and the furrowing eyebrows. 

(Portrait bust of Trajan Decius, 249-251 CE. Marble, full bust approx. 2'7" high.)

This is yet another continuation of the characterization of portraits. In this portrait, Trajan Decius has a very saddened and worrisome look, which parallels reality during that time; The third century was a tumultuous from the struggle for power between generals. Trajan Decius has bags under his eyes and wrinkles on his forehead. Unlike the veristic portraits from earlier times, this portrait does not incite a feeling of respect, but rather pity for Trajan. Not only does this portrait show Trajan Decius's anxiety, but it also shows the beginning of the decline of the Roman empire. 

(Portraits of the four tetrarchs, from Constantinople. ca. 305 CE. Poryphyry, approx. 4'3" high.)

This portrait was a complete departure from the past portraits. Here, there are four rulers depicted, all in the same way. The individuality from the characterized portraits have disappeared, perhaps to put more emphasis on the more important ideas. These four rulers ruled the Roman empire together. In the portrait, they are shown holding each other, as if to show harmony between the rulers and their lands. 

(Portrait of Constantine, from the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy, ca. 315-330 CE. Marble, approx. 8'6" high.)

This portrait of Constantine is quite different from all the past portraits. It is realistic, but it does not show every wrinkle Constantine had. He is young, but he is not so idealized. He is not characterized with his emotions or thoughts. This portrait is one giant depiction of Constantine. His eyes are avoidant, which disconnects the people and Constantine; but perhaps this was to show that he is really mighty and not of the ordinary viewers. Also, unlike other portraits, this portrait of Constantine is colossal; just the head itself is 8'6". 

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Roman Republican Sculpture 509-27 BCE - Art of Freed Slaves

Ancestry was important to Romans. It was a social norm to have artworks of ancestors placed in cupboards. At funerals of their relatives, Romans paraded these artworks of their ancestors, which follows the Roman tradition of depicting the dead with the living in artworks. They believed that death does not break bonds between people. 

Slaves in Republican Rome were not allowed to own art, since the slaves were considered property. Freedmen and freedwomen, however, were allowed to own art. They often had reliefs of themselves for their toms to celebrate their new status as free people. 

This relief shows three people, Gessia Fausta on the left, Gessius Primus on the right, and Publius Gessius in the middle. The two on each side were ex-slaves of Publius Gessius Fausta and Primus had the relief made to showcase their new status as free Roman citizens and to show their appreciation of Publius Gessius for freeing them. The interesting aspect of this relief is that all three subjects are placed together, side by side, even though two of them had already passed away. In fact, it would be unlikely that anyone could guess who directed the relief if not for the inscription. 

Funerary reliefs also took narrative form. This relief of a funerary procession from Amiternum shows the deceased person on a bed, and musicians, professional female mourners (pretty odd), and the deceased person's family. In this relief, the deceased person sits up, as if he is witnessing his own funeral. This parallels the Etruscan sarcophagi, where the deceased people sat up, looking at the viewer. Narrative funerary artworks have been created in other cultures besides Roman. In the Geometric period of Greek art, the geometric krater from the Dipylon cemetery shows a narrative funerary procession. Other examples are the Minoan sarcophagus from Hagia Triada and the Egyptian detail from a fresco from the tomb of Nebamun. 

Krater from the Dipylon cemetery 

Sarcophagus from Hagia Triada 

Detail of fresco from tomb of Nebamun.