Being Protestant in Reformation England

What can dead people's stuff tell us about religious cultures in 16th- and 17th-century England?

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Joel O’Flaherty and Johnty Robinson-Stanier

This rare medieval textile is a set of priest’s robes embroidered with figures of saints. At the Reformation, robes of this sort were condemned due to the Protestant attack on the vestments which appeared to attribute the priests a special status as intermediaries between the laity and God. But rather than discard this one, the thrifty parishioners of St Mary Arches unpicked the offending figures which now appear as blank shadows, then cut the cloth into strips and re-assembled the pieces as a pall, which was a cover for the coffin. The detail and artistic quality of the piece is evident, perhaps suggesting why the parishioners decided to recycle the robes, as it would be a shame to destroy such an item that required such skill to produce.

Interestingly, not all of the saints have been removed, it is not clear as to why this is the case. It could be simply that the creator did not have time to replace all of the figures, or that they would not be visible when the pall was in use. The identities of many of the saints is also a mystery, due to the tempering, however, the airbrushed figure from the centre of the pall is clearly the figure of Christ on the crucifix. The removal of Christ is clear evidence of the attack on abused images being enforced. This would suggest that they were subject to the waves of iconoclasm that occurred in England from the reign of Edward VI onwards, peaking again around the Civil Wars.

The object also highlights how successful the visitations were at removing abused images, as the enforcing power of the visitors reached into the far corners of the country and rather than being hidden away, these robes were permanently altered to align with the doctrine of the new religion. It could go so far as to suggesting an ideological break for the people of Exeter with traditional assumptions about the powers of the saints. At the very least it displays a shift in church practices where the status of the priest was diminished to that of an ordinary teacher. However, the remnants of a select number of saints could suggest that the idea of the power of saints was a comforting one, certainly a deep-rooted one, and one that had not yet been fully eradicated.

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Kenesha Asiedu

The Matthew Miller clock currently displayed in the Royal Albert Memorial Museum once belonged to the St Mary Steps Church in Exeter. Designed between 1619 and 1621 by a local craftsman, Matthew Hoppen, it was named after a miller from the parish who was known for his punctuality. Astronomical clocks have been in existence in the Arab world and China since the eleventh century, with the first known examples emerging in Europe in the fourteenth century.  This is a modest but beautiful example, although it appears to have no time-telling functions. The clock face is dark blue with golden astronomical symbols in place of numbers, ringed on the outside by black and gold zodiac signs and surrounded by stonework angels and cherubs. This fusion of astrological and religious imagery has interesting implications about the relationship between these two seemingly combatant elements of culture. This clock belonged to one of the poorest parishes in Exeter, and it has been suggested that it was rejected by Exeter Cathedral when the Reformation led to a change in tastes; perhaps this clock seemed too 'popish' with its symbols and iconography?

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Sam Fenn

Apostle Spoons were usually made of silver and depicted either one of the twelve apostles or Christ on the end of the handle. Whilst obviously decorative they were also intended to be used, perhaps for special occasions. There are examples of English spoons dating from around the mid-15th century into the early 18th century. The earlier examples would obviously predate the Reformation, indicating their creation and use were originally Catholic practices. What is surprising is that they have survived in considerable numbers, and in such a good condition, as well as continually being made in England well into the 17th century. This would suggest that they were not subject to the waves of iconoclasm that occurred in England from the reign of Edward VI onwards, peaking again around the Civil Wars. Furthermore, it is suggested that they were popular with Puritans which is again unexpected considering their abhorrence of religious imagery, especially bearing in mind these spoons depicted Saints. This perhaps helps give an idea as to why Puritans were so often accused of hypocrisy, although the fact that these spoons were evidently used for a practical, non-religious purpose may have been what excused them as imagery in the minds of the godly. These spoons were often given by godparents as gifts at a baptism, which provides an insight into the early modern culture surrounding christenings. Apostle spoons would provide a practical purpose in helping to feed a baby, whilst also acting as fine decorations in the home.

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Marcus Watkinson

This is a silver gilt communion cup and paten cover. It was made in 1575 for Holy Trinity Church by John Jones, one of the wealthiest and most prominent goldsmiths in early modern Exeter. Although only about 2,000 communion cups from this period have survived, more than a hundred of them were made by Jones. While the cup itself was used to serve the consecrated wine, the paten would probably have held the bread during the Christian celebration of Holy Communion. Significantly, Protestantism had rejected the Roman Catholic belief in ‘transubstantiation’, which posits that the bread and wine are miraculously transformed into the body and blood of Christ during the service. Protestants’ subsequent emphasis on a simpler, more direct form of worship meant that the detailing on a cup at this time could be expected to be much less elaborate and grandiose. Interestingly, the paten is slightly bent out of shape, possibly a reflection of significant use within the church. Communion cups such as this offer an invaluable insight into the religious cultures, practices and beliefs of the period. Importantly, they also reveal the role and place of the church as an economic force as well as the contribution made by the goldsmiths’ industry in a localised religious and social context.

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Ellen McCreadie

The objects above are roodscreen doors from the Ashprington Church in Devon. They are estimated to date from around 1150-1200, and their worn appearance reflects this. The doors have relatively detailed carving, which would have been funded by donations from the parish. This possibly suggests that the members of this parish had a strong attachment to their church and it was important to the community to have lavish decorations in this place of worship. By the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries, roodscreens were in the majority of English parish churches. They created a barrier in church, which separated the area around the altar from the lay people. The reformation had a significant impact on roodscreens, though, and it is notable that these doors have survived throughout reigns such as Edward VI’s where they were ordered to be removed. The paint remains on these doors demonstrates that they were repainted throughout the Reformation during different reigns. The saint painted on the right was originally a king, reflecting the Reformed idea of disliking idolatry. The survival of the roodscreens seems to show an attachment to Catholic traditions and perhaps goes against the argument that the laity were widely supportive of the reformation.

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Amy Bensley

This coin is a half-crown made in Exeter 1644 during the civil war. The reverse side of the coin shows an image by Frenchman Nicholas Briot, of a soldier on a galloping horse, and is predominantly uniform amongst most coins struck at the Exeter and Truro mints 1643-6. The obverse sides of such coins generally showed greater variety however. This one reads ‘to fight for the Protestant religion and laws of England’ as a statement of royalist war propaganda. Ardent Royalist, Sir Richard Vyvyan, received royal commission to set up a mint in Exeter on 3rd January 1644, and all coins dated 1544/45 were struck at this mint using traditional manual methods. Despite this both the Royalists and Parliamentarians shared the cause stated on the coin, raising the question of whether someone in possession of the coin would be able to distinguish which side it championed. Exeter was a royalist stronghold, but the likelihood of a common early moderner with the ability to read the Latin inscription is unlikely. Therefore it is can be assumed that persons in possession of this coin would not be able to distinguish that it propounded the Royalist cause. The change in the design of British currency shown by this coin demonstrates one way in which the daily lives of early modern people in Exeter were affected by the civil war. Furthermore the image on the coin clearly indicates war, acting as constant reminder and indicating the prominence of the civil war within daily life.

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James Boissier 

This is object is an oak sculpture of St Peter holding a church and the keys of heaven, and is seen trampling the Devil. It dates from around 1500 and was once a corner-post of a house in the centre of Exeter and then numerous other houses in the city. It was possibly the work of craftsman from northern France, the Low Countries or Germany. There was a significant population of immigrants in Exeter from this time and many of these immigrants were commissioned to make these figures and statues. Figures such as this one in this period were increasingly associated with the cult of saints and idolatry and after the mid-1500s many of these statues were destroyed or removed from original positions. Furthermore, the figure of St Peter holding the keys to heaven was a distinctly Catholic belief and Protestantism was keen to subdue any beliefs surrounding saints. The purpose therefore of such a figure before the reformation would have been as a means of worshipping St Peter and a symbolic way of resisting the Devil and sin. Its survival however perhaps reveals a degree of attachment to more traditional Catholic beliefs throughout the period as many of these figures would have been destroyed, yet instead it has been kept and perhaps hidden to preserve it.

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Emily Moon

The sgraffito dish was produced in Barnstaple and takes its style inspiration from Huguenot and Low Countries pottery showing how foreign industries interacted with those at home. The dish itself was found in several pieces, alongside other broken domestic artefacts in a stone-lined toilet pit in the garden of a merchant’s house (1680-90) in North Street, Exeter. Interestingly, the image in the centre is thought to represent the future King Charles II hiding in an oak tree following the Battle of Worcester in 1651. The tale was popular after the Restoration and numerous representative plates were created by Thomas Toft in Staffordshire - there seems no reason to discount the possibility that similar dishes were produced more widely. The location reveals how changing fashions of household goods connected with ideas of disposal. However, it could also be that this dish was discarded at the end of Charles II’s reign which would show how political affairs interacted with domestic life. Crucially, the dish gives insights into how people viewed the figures and the stories of monarchy in early modern society and suggests that perhaps royal commemorative crockery is not such a new idea!

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Kerry Mann

This coin is one of a hoard of seven found in Chudleigh, Devon in 1986. They date to 1615-1616 under the reign of James I and would have been traded across Europe. This is a ‘unite’ coin; named in honour of James’ unification of England and Scotland. Coins were used to show prestige and wealth, which can be seen clearly in the use of valuable gold and detailed craftsmanship in creating the ornate design seen on the face of the coin. The eye is drawn to the large crown atop James’ crest, emphasising authority and the legitimacy of his rule to his citizens and those who traded with England and Scotland- a constant reminder of his glory. James needed to assert this authority as unification was unpopular to many, especially the English Parliament, even when these coins were produced which was ten years after the Union with Scotland Act was passed. This coin is well used with some of the edges worn away, suggesting this coin was in circulation for a long time. It was also hidden, perhaps due to the upcoming Civil War in which the owner would want to remove all relation to the monarchy, and was forgotten about until its discovery?

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Laura Sangha

This English bible was printed in London in 1631, and is now part of the Victoria and Albert Museum collections, T.100-1964. The artist and maker is unknown. The cover is canvas, covered with satin and embroidered with silver-gilt threads, strip and purl, spangles and coloured silk in raised, couched and laid work. The book therefore would have been a prestigious and expensive item. The design on the spine is almost obliterated, which could suggest that the book has been well used, but there is no indication of the quality of the pages themselves to judge wear. However, the date 24 October 1776 is inscribed on the inside cover, suggesting that the book remained in circulation for decades after its initial publication. Bibles were often passed down through the generations and they could become important repositories of family history, so it is possible that this book could have been an important family heirloom. Inside the oval cartouche on the cover a soldier is depicted in armour and helmet, with raised visor pointing to the sun emerging from clouds above. This might be a personalisation - perhaps the original owner was a solider by profession? The book is quite small (6″ x 3″), so could have been taken away on campaign in a pocket.

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Laura Sangha

The 1630s was a time of innovation in church services. Archbishop Laud and other bishops cracked down on nonconformity and insisted that ministers followed the Book of Common Prayer to the letter. Ministers were forced to wear the surplice, people had to bow at the name of Jesus, and sermons were played down at the expense of sacraments. In accordance with the principle of ‘the beauty of worship’, Laudians also moved the communion table back to the chancel, and erected altar ‘rails’ such as those shown in this image. To many contemporaries, these changes smacked of ‘popery’, and people feared that Laudianism was really an attempt to smuggle catholicism back into England. Laudiansm is therefore seen as one of the key contributors to the causes of the English Civil Wars.

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Laura Sangha

The 1559 Book of Common Prayer was one of the key texts of the English Reformation. It provided detailed instructions for ministers about what church services should look and sound like, and dictated which passages of scripture were to be read on which days of the year. It also provided scripts for the sacraments (Lord’s Supper & Baptism) and milestone ceremonies such as marriage or burial. This national liturgy was designed to ensure uniformity of religious practice across the c.9,000 English parishes, although in practice it still left plenty of scope for ministers and parishioners to exercise choice when it came to details (music, surplice, kneeling...). Though the BCP was to prove very popular with many, the ‘hotter sort of protestants’ were unhappy with aspects of it and in the long run it proved very divisive.

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Laura Sangha

How did early modern folk learn to read? Perhaps they used an Elizabethan hornbook like this one from the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust Collections, 1993-31/652. The face of the hornbook would have a sheet of either vellum or paper pasted or tacked onto it, displaying the alphabet (upper and lower case letters) and in most cases probably also the Lord’s Prayer. This would then be protected by a thin layer of bone or horn, which where the hornbook gets its name. The first thing schoolkids did was learn their letters, so it is likely many people could read, but never progressed to writing. This means that the traditional method of calculating literacy levels - according to what proportion of people could sign their name – is problematic.