Let's go on a medical journey!

I'm Jane, 18 y.o., 2d year medical student in Ukraine. In this blog I want to share some interesting medical information. I'm not a doctor yet, but I'm learning something new everyday. And I want to share with you my  acquired knowledge. Despite medicine facts, I also want to share my motivation, lifestyle and inspiration.

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Types of headaches

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#medschool #doctor #medicalstudent #medicalschool #resources #step1 #study #inspiration #school #tips - http://bit.ly/2ByDqHG

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Have a great and productive week!

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Scientists Identify Factors That Make People Naturally Resistant to H.I.V.

Researchers used a novel approach to identify specific amino acids in the protein structure of HIV that appear critical to the ability of the virus to function and replicate. They also have found that the immune systems of individuals naturally able to control HIV infection target these amino acids with pathogen-killing CD8 T cells, an ability seen even in controllers who do not carry versions of the HLA-B protein previously associated with HIV control.

The research, conducted by the Ragon Institute, a collaboration of various affiliates of Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), is presented in a paper published in the journal Science. It builds on a study of two small groups of people who are naturally able to control the spread of H.I.V. much better than the average patient.

The Ragon research team tapped into the Protein Data Bank, a database of the three-dimensional structures of protein molecules. Using mathematical modeling they identified nodes where the greatest numbers of proteins linked together to form the virus. To investigate the relationship between these findings and natural HIV control, the team compared the CD8 T cell responses of a group of controllers with those of individuals with intermediate viral loads and those in whom infection was progressive, as indicated by higher viral loads.

Not only was the proliferation of CD8 T cells highest in controllers, but their T cell response also was directed against highly networked amino acids, which were weakly targeted by non-controllers. CD8 T cell targeting of highly networked peptides was also seen in controllers who do not have protective forms of HLA, indicating that the ability to mount a T cell defense against those viral peptides may be more important than an individual’s inherited HLA variants.

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Types of sutures

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Types of stroke

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The anatomy of a c-section, as told with felt.

Props to Tracy Sher for the creative presentation.

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You know, I this is a nice visualization. Like, an awesome one. 

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Electrocardiography

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Happy International Women’s Day!

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The first step is to establish that something is possible; then probability will occur.

Elon Musk

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What Is Prozac (Fluoxetine)?

Prozac is the brand name of fluoxetine, a prescription drug used to treat depression.

This antidepressant is in a class of drugs known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, or SSRIs. These medications work by increasing the amount of serotonin in the brain.

In addition to depression, Prozac is used to treat:

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

Binge eating disorder

Vomiting in people with moderate to severe bulimia

Panic disorder (with or without agoraphobia, the fear of open spaces)

Fluoxetine capsules and tablets sold under the brand name Sarafem are used to treat premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), a condition in which a woman has symptoms of depression, irritability, and tension before menstruation.

Prozac comes in several forms, including capsules, tablets, liquid, and delayed-release capsules.

Eli Lilly and Company makes Prozac, which was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1987.

The delayed-release capsule Prozac Weekly is also made by Eli Lilly and Company.

Generic forms of fluoxetine, fluoxetine delayed-release capsules, and Sarafem are also available.

Source: www.everydayhealth.com

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Health Benefits of Coffee

What health benefits does coffee offer?

Though researchers don't always know exactly which of coffee's ingredients are responsible for producing their studies' health-boosting results, there's evidence that drinking coffee may help do the following:

1. Improve overall health.

An analysis of nearly 220 studies on coffee, published in the BMJ in 2017, found that coffee drinkers may enjoy more overall health benefits than people who don't drink coffee.

The analysis found that during the study period, coffee drinkers were 17 percent less likely to die early from any cause, 19 percent less likely to die of heart disease and 18 percent less likely to develop cancer than those who don't drink coffee.

2. Protect against Type 2 diabetes.

A 2014 study by Harvard researchers published in the journal Diabetologica tracked nearly 124,000 people for 16–20 years.

Those who increased their coffee intake by more than a cup a day over a four-year period had an 11 percent lower risk of developing Type 2 diabetes; those who decreased their intake by one cup per day had a 17 percent higher risk of developing the disease.

3. Control Parkinson's disease symptoms.

A number of studies have suggested that consuming caffeine can reduce your risk of developing Parkinson's disease — and research published in 2012 in the journal of the American Academy of Neurology showed that a daily dose of caffeine equivalent to that found in two eight-ounce cups of black coffee can help to control the involuntary movements of people who already have the disease. (You'd have to drink nearly eight cups of brewed black tea to get the same amount of caffeine.)

4. Slow the progress of dementia.

In a 2012 study published in the Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, Florida researchers tested the blood levels of caffeine in older adults with mild cognitive impairments, which can be a precursor to severe dementia, including Alzheimer's disease.

When the researchers re-evaluated the subjects two to four years later, those whose blood levels contained caffeine amounts equivalent to about three cups of coffee were far less likely to have progressed to full-blown dementia than those who had consumed little or no caffeine.

5. Safeguard the liver.

Several studies published in respected journals have found that coffee drinking has beneficial effects on the liver, including reducing the risk of death from liver cirrhosis, decreasing harmful liver enzyme levels and limiting liver scarring in people who have hepatitis C.

6. Promote heart health.

In 2013, the journal Epidemiology and Prevention published a review of studies analyzing the correlation between coffee consumption and cardiovascular disease. Data from 36 different studies showed that people who drink three to five cups of coffee per day had a lower risk of heart disease than those who drink no coffee or more than five cups per day.

While the reason isn't clear, one possibility is that coffee helps to improve blood vessels' control over blood flow and blood pressure.

7. Reduce melanoma risk.

A recent study appearing in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute looked at the coffee-drinking habits of more than 447,000 people over 10 years. The researchers found that those who drank four or more cups of caffeinated coffee each day had a 20 percent lower risk of developing melanoma than people who drank decaffeinated coffee or no coffee.

Advice for coffee drinkers

We asked Steven K. Rothschild, MD, a family medicine physician at Rush University Medical Center and a dedicated two- to-three-cup-a-day man (black, no sweetener) to weigh in.

While he's never gone so far as to prescribe a daily dose of java for any of his patients, he says, "I'm certainly familiar with a lot of research showing that coffee has a mildly beneficial effect in protecting against issues like stroke, diabetes and cardiovascular problems."

He offers a few caveats, however:

Bottom line? Enjoy a daily cup or two of coffee, but don't use it as a substitute for other healthy behaviors.

Source: www.rush.edu

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Gluten: A Benefit or Harm to the Body?

What is Gluten?

Gluten is a protein naturally found in some grains including wheat, barley, rye, and spelt. It acts like a binder, holding food together and adding a “stretchy” quality—think of a pizza maker tossing and stretching out a ball of dough. Without gluten, the dough would rip easily.

Other grains that contain gluten are wheat berries, durum, emmer, semolina, farina, farro, graham, khorasan wheat, einkorn, and triticale (a blend of wheat and rye). Oats—though naturally gluten free—often contain gluten from cross-contamination, as they are processed in the same facilities as the grains listed above. Gluten is also sold as wheat gluten, or seitan, a popular vegan high-protein food. Less obvious sources of gluten include monosodium glutamate (MSG), soy sauce, lecithin, modified food starch, and occasionally medications and vitamins (from cross-contamination or the use of wheat starch as fillers or in the coatings).

Gluten and Health Benefits

Gluten is most often associated with wheat and wheat-containing foods that are abundant in our food supply. Negative media attention on wheat and gluten has caused some people to doubt its place in a healthful diet. There is little published research to support these claims; in fact published research suggests the opposite.

In a 2017 study of over 100,000 participants without celiac disease, researchers found no association between long-term dietary gluten consumption and heart disease risk. In fact, the findings also suggested that non-celiac individuals who avoid gluten may increase their risk of heart disease, due to the potential for reduced consumption of whole grains.

Many studies have linked whole grain consumption with improved health outcomes. For example, groups with the highest intakes of whole grains including wheat (2-3 servings daily) compared with groups eating the lowest amounts (less than 2 servings daily) were found to have significantly lower rates of heart disease and stroke, development of type 2 diabetes, and deaths from all causes. 

Gluten may also act as a prebiotic, feeding the “good” bacteria in our bodies. Arabinoxylan oligosaccharide is a prebiotic carbohydrate derived from wheat bran that has been shown to stimulate the activity of bifidobacteria in the colon. These bacteria are normally found in a healthy human gut. Changes in their amount or activity have been associated with gastrointestinal diseases including inflammatory bowel disease, colorectal cancer, and irritable bowel syndrome. 

When Gluten Is a Problem

What’s not great about gluten is that it can cause serious side effects in certain individuals. Some people react differently to gluten, where the body senses it as a toxin, causing one’s immune cells to overreact and attack it. If an unknowingly sensitive person continues to eat gluten, this creates a kind of battle ground resulting in inflammation. The side effects can range from mild (fatigue, bloating, alternating constipation and diarrhea) to severe (unintentional weight loss, malnutrition, intestinal damage) as seen in the autoimmune disorder celiac disease. Estimates suggest that 1 in 133 Americans has celiac disease, or about 1% of the population, but about 83% of them are undiagnosed or misdiagnosed with other conditions. Research shows that people with celiac disease also have a slightly higher risk of osteoporosis and anemia (due to malabsorption of calcium and iron, respectively); infertility; nerve disorders; and in rare cases cancer. The good news is that removing gluten from the diet may reverse the damage. A gluten-free diet is the primary medical treatment for celiac disease. However, understanding and following a strict gluten-free diet can be challenging, possibly requiring the guidance of a registered dietitian to learn which foods contain gluten and to ensure that adequate nutrients are obtained from gluten-free alternatives. Other conditions that may require the reduction or elimination of gluten in the diet include:

Non-celiac gluten sensitivity, also referred to as gluten sensitive enteropathy (GSE) or gluten intolerance—An intolerance to gluten with similar symptoms as seen with celiac disease, but without the accompanying elevated levels of antibodies and intestinal damage. There is not a diagnostic test for GSE but is determined by persistent symptoms and a negative diagnostic celiac test.

Wheat allergy—An allergy to one or more of the proteins (albumin, gluten, gliadin, globulin) found in wheat, diagnosed with positive immunoglobulin E blood tests and a food challenge. Compare this with celiac disease, which is a single intolerance to gluten. Symptoms range from mild to severe and may include swelling or itching of the mouth or throat, hives, itchy eyes, shortness of breath, nausea, diarrhea, cramps, and anaphylaxis. People who test negative for this condition may still have gluten sensitivity. This condition is most often seen in children, which most outgrow by adulthood.

Dermatitis herpetiformis (DH)—A skin rash that results from eating gluten. It is an autoimmune response that exhibits itself as a persistent red itchy skin rash that may produce blisters and bumps. Although people with celiac disease may have DH, the reverse is not always true. Those with DH often do not have any digestive symptoms.

It is important to note that gluten is a problem only for those who react negatively to it. Most people can and have eaten gluten most of their lives, without any adverse side effects. Source: www.hsph.harvard.edu

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The anatomy of Knee joint

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Hard work always pays off in the end.

Miranda Kerr 

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The opioid system

The opioid system controls pain, reward and addictive behaviors. Opioids exert their pharmacological actions through three opioid receptors, mu, delta and kappa whose genes have been cloned (Oprm, Oprd1 and Oprk1, respectively). Opioid receptors in the brain are activated by a family of endogenous peptides like enkephalins, dynorphins and endorphin, which are released by neurons. Opioid receptors can also be activated exogenously by alkaloid opiates, the prototype of which is morphine, which remains the most valuable painkiller in contemporary medicine.

Neuropsychopharmacology 2007, Vienna, Austria, exciting new methods that now allow to understand how molecules act in the brain and control behavior.

To understand how molecules act in the brain and control behavior one can manipulate genes encoding these molecules in complex organisms, such as the mouse, and explore the consequences of these targeted genetic manipulations on animal responses in vivo.

Today, genetically modified mouse models represent a state-of-the art approach towards understanding brain function.

The direct comparison of mice lacking each of the three opioid-receptor genes reveals that mu- and delta-opioid receptors act oppositely in regulating emotional reactivity. This highlights a novel aspect of mu- and delta-receptor interactions, which contrasts with the former commonly accepted idea that activation of mu- and delta-receptors produces similar biological effects (Traynor & Elliot, 1993).

mu-opioid-receptor

The finding that morphine's analgesic and addictive properties are abolished in mice lacking the mu-opioid receptor has unambiguously demonstrated that mu-receptors mediate both the therapeutic and the adverse activities of this compound (Matthes 1996). Importantly, a series of studies has shown that the reinforcing properties of alcohol, cannabinoids, and nicotine -- each of which acts at a different receptor -- are also strongly diminished in these mutant mice. The genetic approach therefore highlights mu-receptors as convergent molecular switches, which mediate reinforcement following direct (morphine) or indirect activation (non-opioid drugs of abuse; see Contet 2004).

Endogenous opioid binding to mu-receptors is furthermore hypothesized to mediate natural rewards and has been proposed to be the basis of infant attachment behavior (Moles 2004).

Mice lacking the mu-receptor gene show:

a loss of morphine-induced analgesia, reward, and dependence

increased sensitivity to painful stimuli

reduced reward to non-opioid drugs of abuse and

altered emotional responses

delta-opioid-receptor

Analysis showed an unexpected alteration of emotional reactivity in the delta-receptor knockout mice (Filliol et al 2000). The mutant mice demonstrated increased levels of anxiety, and a depressive-like behavior -- these findings have important implications on the field of opioid research und uncover the therapeutic potential for delta-agonists in the treatment of mood disorders.

The most recent findings are the direct visualization of an opioid receptor in the mouse brain. The combination of fluorescent genetically encoded proteins (green fluorescent protein GFP from the jellyfish (Aequora victoria) with mouse engineering provides a fascinating means to study dynamic biological processes in mammals. Fluorescent genetically encoded proteins are unique high-contrast, noninvasive molecular markers for live imaging in complex organisms and provide the exploration of the receptor localization and function in vivo.

Scherrer et al. have knocked enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) into the opioid delta receptor gene and produced mice expressing a functional DOR-EGFP C-terminal fusion in place of the native DOR. After manipulation of the mouse genome mutant animals express a fluorescent functional version of the delta-receptor in place of the native receptor (knock-in mouse) (Scherrer et al. 2006). This is the first example of a G protein coupled receptor directly visible in vivo.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of membrane receptors and are therapeutically essential, representing targets for 50% of marketed drugs (Scherrer et al., 2006). mu-, delta- and kappa-opioid-receptors are GPCRs of the nervous system.

The DOR-EGFP mouse provides a unique approach to explore receptor localization and function in vivo. GPCR represent the largest and most versatile family of membrane receptors, and each member has a specific cellular life cycle. The EGFP-knocking approach could be extended to other GPCRs, particulary in the case of orphan receptors for which in vivo pharmacology is still in its infancy (Scherrer et al., 2006).

Altogether there have been identified genes encoding receptors from a complex neuromodulatory system, and developed gene targeting approaches to elucidate the function of these genes in the mammalian brain.

It was found that mu-receptors control reward, while delta-receptors regulate emotional responses and for the first time a genetic manipulation was pioneered to achieve functional imaging of opioid receptors in vivo.   Source: www.sciencedaily.com

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