Anatomy

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2.9: Regulation of body fluid pH is vital for homeostasis

Hydrogen ion (H+)- hydrogen atom involved in a chemical bond in a chemical reaction can easily lose its electrons

Hydroxide: hydrogen ions are present in pure water, because some of the water molecules dissociate 

pH: negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration in moles per liter (0-14)

  Alkaline-basic and above 7

Blood pH: 7.35-7.45

  Acidosis-low blood pH can lead to coma

  Alkalosis: high blood pH- causes muscle contractions

Acid: any solute that dissociates in solution and releases hydrogen ions, lowering pH

Base: solute that removes hydrogen ions from solution and acts as a proton acceptor (NaCl)

Carbonic acid: weak acid found in body fluids

Salts: ionic compound consisting of any cation except a hydrogen ion and any anion except a hydroxide ion. 

Buffers: compounds that stabilize the pH of a solution by removing or replacing hydrogen ions

Buffer systems: involved weak acid and related salt which functions as a weak base

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2.8: Physiological systems depend on water

Ionization or dissociation: ionic bonds are broken as the individual ions interact with the positive or negative poles of polar water molecules

Hydration sphere: sheath of water molecules around an ion in solution

Hydrophilic: molecules that interact readily with water molecules

What are the most important electrolytes?

  NaCl, KCl, CaPO4, NaHCO3, NgCl2, Na2HPO4, Na2SO4

Hydrophobic: molecules that don't readily interact with water

Colloid: solution containing dispersed proteins or other large molecules

Suspension: larger particles that will settle out in solution

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Chapter 2, section 3: Importance of water in the body

Properties of water:

  Lubrication: little friction between water molecules, good for joints and cavities

  Reactivity: Chemical reactions occur in water and need them for chemical reactions such as hydrolysis and dehydration

  High heat capacity: ability to absorb and retain heat. Molecules in liquid state are attracted through hydrogen bonding

  Solubility: Ability to dissolve

     Solution:- uniform mixture

     Solvent: Like water

    Solutes: substance dispersed

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2.7: Enzymes lower the activation energy requirements of chemical reactions

What is activation energy?

  Energy required to start reaction

What are enzymes?

  Special proteins to perform complex synthesis and decomp

What are catalysts?

  Compounds that accelerate chemical reactions without being permanently changed or consumed.

What are metabolic pathways?

  Complex reactions that support life proceed in a series of interlocking steps

What is exergonic versus endergonic?

  Ex- reactions that release energy

  En- Reactions that require more energy than released

What is metabolites?

  include all the molecules that can be synthesized or broken down by chemical reactions

What is nutrients?

  Essential metabolites normally gained from diet

        Organic- always has carbon and hydrogen (sugar, fats, proteins)

        Inorganic- no carbon or hydrogens ( acids, bases, salts)

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2.6: Three basic types of chemical reactions

Decomposition:

 breaks a molecule into smaller fragments. Can be outside or inside of cells

     Hydrolysis: Decomposition reaction involving water. Components of water are added to the resulting fragments

     Catabolism: decomposition reactions of complex molecules within the cells and tissues (CD--> C+D + engery)

Synthesis:

  Assembles smaller molecules into larger ones

Dehydration or Condensation:

  Formation of a complex molecule by the removal of water

     Anabolism: synthesis of new molecules within the body's cells and tissues

Equilibrium: 

  Rates at which the two reactions proceed are in balance

Exchange reactions:

  Parts of the reacting molecules are shuffled around to produce new products

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Section 2.5: Chemical notation is a concise method of describing chemical reactions

What is chemical notation?

  Chemical shorthand

What are the rules of chemical notation?

  1. Symbol of an element indicates one atom of that element

  2. Numbers preceding the symbol of an element indicated more than one atom of that element

  3. Subscript following the symbol of an element indicated a molecule with that number of atoms of that element

  4. Reactions --> Products

  5. Superscript plus or minus following the symbol of an element indicates and ion.

  6. Chemical reactions never create or destroy atoms, but rearrange them

What is a mole?

  Quantity with a weight in grams equal to an element's atomic weight

What is molecular weight?

  molecule is the sum of the atomic weights

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Chapter 2, Section 2: Chemical Reactions

What are reactants?

  Reacting substances

What are products?

  Different substances

What is metabolism?

  All of the reactions under way in the cells and tissues of the body 

What is work?

  Movement of an object or a change in the physical structure

What is energy?

  Capacity to perform work

What is kinetic energy versus potential energy?

  K- energy of motion, P- stored energy

Why does your body temp rise when you exercise?

  When a muscle contracts, it performs work, the potential energy is then kinetic energy and the energy is released as heat. 

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2.4: Matter may exist as a solid, a liquid, or a gas

Solids: maintain shape, volume at normal temperatures and pressures

Liquids: constant volume but no fixed shape

Gas: constant volume nor a fixed shape

What is hydrogen bond?

  Weak attractive force

What is surface tension?

  Hydrogen bonds between water molecules slow the rate of evaporation 

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2.3: Most common chemical bonds are ionic bonds and covalent bonds

What is a compound?

  Chemical substance made up of atoms of 2 or more different elements

What are ionic bonds?

  Chemical bonds created by the electrical attraction between cations and anions. 

What are covalent bonds?

  Sharing of electrons

What are molecules?

  Chemical structure consisting of atoms of one or more elements held together by chemical bonds

    Hydrogen- Single covalent bond- one electron is contributed by each atom

    Oxygen- Double covalent

What is a nonpolar molecule?

  No electrical charge on a molecule

What is a polar molecule?

 When there is asysmetrical charges

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2.2: Electrons occupy various energy levels

What are reactive elements?

  The outermost energy level is unfilled and reacts with other atoms. 

What are inert elements? 

  Elements that don't do chemical processes, have filled outer shells

What are cations?

  Positive charge. Loses an electron

What are anions?

  Negative charge. Gains electrons

What are chemical bonds?

  Interactions that stabilize the outer energy levels of atoms

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2.1 : Typical atoms contain protons, neutrons, and electrons

What is the atomic number?

  The number of protons

What is the mass number?

  Total number of protons and neutrons

What is electron shell?

  Fixed orbit that electrons travel around

What are isotopes?

  Atoms who nuclei contain the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons.

What is the atomic weight? 

  Actual mass of the atom (measured in dalton or amu) 

What are the principle elements of the human body?

  Oxygen (65)- component of water and other compounds

  Carbon (18.6)- In all organic molecules

  Hydrogen (9.7)- Component of water and other compounds

  Nitrogen (3.2)- Found in proteins, nucleic acids and other organic 

  Calcium (1.8)- In bones and teeth, important for membrane function, nerve impulses, muscle contraction, and blood clotting

  Phosphorus (1.0)- In bones and teeth, nucleic acids and high energy compounds

  Potassium (.4) - Important for membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction

  Sodium (.2) - Important for blood volume, membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction

  Chlorine (.2)- Important for blood volume, membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contractions

  Magnesium (.06)- A cofactor for many enzymes

  Sulfur (.04)- In many proteins

  Iron (.007)- Essential for oxygen transport and energy capture

  Iodine (.0002)- Component of hormones of thyroid gland

  Trace elements: 14 elements that are present in small amounts

What are chemical symbols?

  abbreviation recognized by scientist everywhere

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Chapter 2, Section: Atoms and Molecules

What is the study of chemistry?

   Study of the structure of matter

What is mass?

  The amount of material in matter, physical property that determines weight of an object in Earth's gravitational field.

What are atoms? What are in Atoms?

  Smallest stable units of matter and made of subatomic particles. 

  Protons- with positive electrical charge

  Neutrons- Neutral charge

  Electrons- Very small with negative charge

  Nucleus- Center of an atom. Mass is determines by number of P and N in nucleus. 

  Electron cloud- Electrons in the atom whirl around the nucleus

  Molecule- when atoms interact and produce larger, more complex structures.

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1.10 Body cavities

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1.9 Directional and sectional terms describe specific points or reference

Anterior- front surface Ventral- belly side Posterior- back surface Cranial- head Superior- top half Caudal- the tail Inferior- bottom half Medial- towards longitudinal axis Lateral- away from longitudinal axis Proximal- towards base Distal- away from base Superficial- near surface Deep- far for surface Transverse- separates superior and inferior portions Sagital- separates right and left portions Midsagittal- perfect halves Parasagittal- uneven halves Frontal- separates anterior and posterior

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1.8 Superficial anatomy and regional anatomy indicate locations on or in the body

What is anatomical position? . How the body is facing What is supine? . Faced up What is prone? . Faced down What are the regions of the human body? 1. Cephalon. Cephalic region 2. Cervicis. Cervical region 3. Thoracics. Thoracic region 4. Brachium. Brachial region 5. Antebrachium. Forearm 6. Carpus. Carpal region 7. Manus. Manual region 8. Abdomen. Abdominal region 9. Lumbus. Lumbar region 10. Gluteus. Butt 11. Pelvis. Pelvic 12. Inguen. Inguinal region 13. Femur. Femoral region 14. Crus. Crural region 15. Sura. Surat region 16. Tarsus. Tarsal regions 17. Pes. Pedal region 18. Plants. Plantar region Who uses abdominal pelvic quadrants? Clinicians Who uses abdominal pelvic regions? Anatomists

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1.7 Negative feedback provides stability whereas positive feedback accelerates a process to completion

What is feedback? . Receptor stimulation triggers a response that changes the environment at the receptor What is negative feedback? . Effector is activated by control center opposes the original stimulus . Like temperature control . Never stops What is positive feedback? . Initial stimulus produces a response that exaggerates or enhances the change in the original changes in the original condition. . Like blood clotting . It does eventually stop

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Section 3 Homeostasis

What is homeostasis? . Presence of stable internal environment What is homeostasis regulation? . Adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis How do you regulate homeostasis? 1. Receptors- skin or brain, sensitive to changes 2. Control center- receives and processes information 3. Effector- responds to stimulus What is set point? . Desired value